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目录
心理学卷·其之壹·定意之史
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作为一个专职研究脑子、精神进程、可视化举动、人与动物的成长与成熟、以及社会互动的学科，心理学在历史里曾经是哲学学科的一部分。历史上有数个哲学家都对心理研究提出了
其余流派介绍：
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咱简简单单总个
心理学卷·其之贰·測查之方
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“有何妙法可助心理学测查研究？”
“如果研究不同种族群体对调查的反应是否不同，研究员可以选择 10 位高加索人、10 位亚洲人、10 位非洲裔美国人……”
研究人员必须尝试隔离所持有的变量或者“控制混杂变量”。
有时研究相关性（而非操纵研究）是最好的研究方法，因为有些数据无法在实验中操纵，比如
人类相关实验的准则：
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心理学卷·其之贰·測查之方·補卷·統計之法
| 心理学卷·其之贰·补卷 |
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心理学卷·其之叁·行為之基
神经元（ ）是构成中枢神经系统（ ）的单个神经细胞。- 每个神经元都由离散的部分组成。
神 经 元 玉 照.jpg
突触.jpg ：
神经递质在神经元滴突触的细胞之间传播。
电流不会跨越突触，神经递质会。
来自一个神经元的神经递质会落在另一个神经元的树突上，并在受体的位置与受体相配。
如果达到
（Boolean型变量啊嗯）
有些神经元是
血、情绪、睡眠、疼痛、敏感性和唤醒相关。
！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！
传入/感觉神经元将信息从我们的感官传送到脊髓。
Interneuron, found in the spinal cord, relays signals between (afferent) sensory neurons, and (efferent) motor neurons; involved in the process of sensory-motor integration.
在脊髓中发现的中间神经元在（传入）感觉神经元和（传出）运动神经元之间传递信号； 参与感觉-运动整合的过程。
Efferent Neurons are conducting cells that carry information from the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) to muscles and organs throughout the body.
传出神经元是传导细胞，将信息从中枢神经系统（大脑和脊髓）传送到全身的肌肉和器官。
A subset of movements are controlled by direct transmission from afferent to efferent cells at the level of the spinal cord.
运动的一个子集（即部分运动）是由脊髓水平的传入细胞直接传递到传出细胞来控制的。
Reflexes: Quick and involuntary responses to environmental stimuli.
反射：对环境刺激非自愿的快速反应。
“Nervous System”
The CNS (Central Nervous System) is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
CNS（中枢神经系统）由大脑和脊髓组成。
The PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) consists of all the other nerves in your body other than those in the brain and spinal cord.
PNS（外周神经系统）由您身体中除大脑和脊髓中的所有其他神经组成。
↓The PNS（的Motor Neurons） is divided into two categories: the somatic and the autonomic. （PNS还有Sensory Neurons，效果如其名。）
↓PNS（的运动神经元）分为躯体和自主两大类。 （PNS还有感觉神经元，效果如其名。）
The somatic nervous system controls our voluntary muscle movements. The motor cortex of the brain sends impulses to the somatic nervous system, which controls the muscles that allow us to move.
躯体神经系统控制着我们的随意肌肉运动。大脑的运动皮层向躯体神经系统发送脉冲，躯体神经系统控制着让我们移动的肌肉。
The autonomic nervous system is responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.
自主神经系统负责控制非有意识指导的身体功能，例如呼吸、心跳和消化过程。
(automatic)The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes our body to respond the stress. It is involuntary.
（自动）交感神经系统调动我们的身体应对压力。这是非自愿的。
This part of our nervous system carries messages to organs, glands, and muscles. The sympathetic nervous system controls heart rate, blood pressures, respiration, and slows non-vital functions such as digestion and reproductive organs.
我们神经系统的这一部分将信息传送到器官、腺体和肌肉。交感神经系统控制心率、血压、呼吸，并减缓消化和生殖器官等非重要功能。
Also called the Fight or Flight System.
也称为战斗或飞行系统。
The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for slowing down our body after a stress response.
副交感神经系统负责在压力反应后减缓我们的身体。
The parasympathetic nervous system puts on the brakes to slow down the body’s autonomic nervous system.
副交感神经系统会刹车以减慢身体的自主神经系统。
Often referred to as the Rest and Digest System.
通常被称为休息和消化系统。
Ways we can study the brain: Accidents, Lesions, Electroencephalogram, Computerized Axial Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Positron Emissions Tomography, Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
我们可以研究(CNS的)大脑的方式：事故、病变、脑电图、计算机轴向断层扫描、磁共振成像、正电子发射断层扫描、功能磁共振成像。
Accidents give clues about brain function.
事故提供了有关大脑功能的线索。
Famous case (1848) of a railroad worker, Phineas Gage who was hit by a piece of rebar in the front of his head. Having sustained damaged to his frontal lobe, and having become highly emotional and impulsive after.
铁路工人菲尼亚斯·盖奇（Phineas Gage）的著名案例（1848 年），他的头部被一根钢筋击中。额叶持续受损，之后变得高度情绪化和冲动。
Doctors concluded that the frontal lobe was somehow regulating emotion.
医生得出结论，额叶以某种方式调节情绪。
Lesion is the removal or destruction of the brain.
病变（个锤子）是大脑的切除或破坏。
A famous example is doctors who lesioned mentally ill patients who had no other treatment options. Lesions give clues about function.
一个著名的例子是医生对没有其他治疗选择的精神病患者进行伤害。“损伤”提供有关功能的线索。
Researchers discovered that lesioning a part of the frontal lobe would make the patients calm and relieve some serious mental conditions.
研究人员发现，损伤额叶的一部分可以让患者平静下来，缓解一些严重的精神状况。
Electroencephalogram/EEG detects current given off by the electrochemical reactions going on in the brain.
脑电图/EEG 检测大脑中发生的电化学反应释放的电流。
Neurons use an electrochemical process to send signals.
神经元使用电化学过程来发送信号。
Researchers can examine what type of waves the brain produces during different stages of consciousness and use this information to generalize about brain function.
研究人员可以检查大脑在不同意识阶段产生的波类型，并使用这些信息来概括大脑功能。
Widely used in sleep research.
广泛用于睡眠研究。
脑电图示意图.jpg
Computerized Axial Tomography/CAT/CT scan is a sophisticated X-ray.
计算机轴向断层扫描/CAT/CT 扫描是一种复杂的 X 射线。
A CAT scan uses X-ray cameras that rotate around the brain and combine all the pictures into a detailed three-dimensional picture of the brain’s structure.
CAT 扫描使用围绕大脑旋转的 X 射线相机，并将所有图片组合成大脑结构的详细 3D 图片。
The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is similar to a CAT scan.
磁共振成像 (MRI) 类似于 CAT 扫描。
MRI determines the structure; it gives a more detailed image than CAT.
MRI确定结构；它提供了比 CAT 更详细的图像。
An MRI uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material.
MRI 使用磁场来测量大脑物质的密度和位置。
Does not expose patients to X-rays like a CAT scan.
不像 CAT 扫描那样让患者暴露在 X 射线下。
磁共振成像示意图.jpg
A Positron Emissions Tomography (PET) scan lets researchers see what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks. It will determine brain function.
正电子发射断层扫描 (PET) 扫描让研究人员可以看到在某些任务中大脑的哪些区域最活跃。它将决定大脑功能。
In PET scans of the brain, a radioactive atom is applied to glucose.
在大脑的 PET 扫描中，将放射性原子应用于葡萄糖/血糖。
If one area of the brain is using more glucose during some activity, (e.g., problem solving, listening, reading, eye movement, etc.), it is a good indication that that area is associated with that mental state or that behavior.
如果大脑的某个区域在某些活动（例如，解决问题、聆听、阅读、眼球运动等）期间使用更多的葡萄糖，则很好地表明该区域与该精神状态或该行为相关。
正电子成像术示意图.jpg
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) combines elements of MRI and PET scans.
功能性磁共振成像 (fMRI) 结合了 MRI 和 PET 扫描的元素。
An fMRI scan can show details of brain structure with information about blood flow to the brain, function.
功能磁共振成像扫描可以显示大脑结构的详细信息，以及有关流向大脑的血流、功能的信息。
Best of both words approach – you can measure structure and function.
最好的两个词以阐释 - fMRI可以衡量（大脑的）结构和功能。
大脑术语.jpg
The hindbrain consists of structures in the top part of the spinal cord.
后脑由脊髓顶部的结构组成。
The hindbrain controls basic biological functions that keep us alive (respiration, heart rate, blood pressure).
后脑控制着维持我们生命的基本生物学功能（呼吸、心率、血压）。
Important structures within the hindbrain are the Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum.
后脑内的重要结构是髓质、脑桥和小脑。
The Medulla, also known as the Medulla Oblongata, located above the spinal cord, is involved in control of blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing.
延髓，也称为延髓，位于脊髓上方，参与控制血压、心率和呼吸。
Pons, located just above the medulla and toward the front, connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain. It is also involved in the control of facial expressions.
脑桥位于髓质上方并朝向前方，将后脑与中脑和前脑连接起来。它还参与面部表情的控制。
The cerebellum (located on the bottom rear) coordinates some habitual muscle movements such as tracking a target with our eyes.
小脑（位于后下方）协调一些习惯性的肌肉运动，例如用我们的眼睛跟踪目标。
Cerebellum means little brain, named this probably because it looks like a miniature brain.
之所以命名为小脑，可能是因为它看起来像一个微型大脑。
Areas in the forebrain that make up the limbic system:
构成边缘系统的前脑区域：
The thalamus, located on top of the brain stem, is responsible for receiving sensory signals coming from the spinal ford and sending them to the right areas of the forebrain.
丘脑，位于脑干顶部，负责接收来自脊髓浅滩的感觉信号并将它们发送到前脑的正确区域。
Kind of like an air traffic control person, who directs where the incoming planes should land.
有点像空中交通管制人员，负责指示来袭飞机的降落地点。
The hypothalamus, a small structure below the thalamus, controls body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, and biological rhythms (wake/sleep patterns).
下丘脑是丘脑下方的一个小结构，它控制体温、性唤起、饥饿、口渴和生物节律（唤醒/睡眠模式）。
The hippocampus, looks like two arms surrounding the thalamus, is vital to our memory.
海马体看起来就像环绕丘脑的两条手臂，对我们的记忆至关重要。
Memories are processed through the hippocampus and then sent to other locations in the cerebral cortex for permanent storage.
记忆通过海马体进行处理，然后发送到大脑皮层的其他位置进行永久存储。
Research shows that memories or information must pass through this area first in order to be encoded.
研究表明，记忆或信息必须首先通过该区域才能被编码。
Individuals with brain damage of the hippocampus are unable to retain new information. If the hippocampus is damaged, old information may also be lost.
海马体脑损伤的个体无法保留新信息。如果海马体受损，旧信息也可能丢失。
The amygdala is very important to certain emotions like fear and aggression.
杏仁核（挨着海马体的那俩）对于恐惧和攻击性等某些情绪非常重要。
The thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus (all the brain parts we just covered) are grouped together and are called the limbic system.
丘脑、下丘脑、杏仁核和海马体（我们刚刚介绍的所有大脑部分）组合在一起，称为边缘系统。
Cerebral cortex: Gray, wrinkled stuff that is densely packed with neurons.
大脑皮层：灰色的、有皱纹的东西，里面有密集的神经元。
The surface of the cerebral cortex is wrinkled. The big wrinkles are called Fissures.
大脑皮层表面起皱。大皱纹被称为裂缝。
Fissures increase the availability of surface area. The more wrinkles, the more surface area contained within the skull.
裂缝增加了表面积的可用性。皱纹越多，颅骨内的表面积就越大。
Cerebral cortex: Gray, wrinkled stuff that is densely packed with neurons.
大脑皮层：灰色的、有皱纹的东西，里面有密集的神经元。
The surface of the cerebral cortex is wrinkled. The big wrinkles are called Fissures.
大脑皮层表面起皱。大皱纹被称为裂缝。
Fissures increase the availability of surface area. The more wrinkles, the more surface area contained within the skull.
裂缝增加了表面积的可用性。皱纹越多，颅骨内的表面积就越大。
The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres: left and right.
大脑皮层分为左右两个半球。
The left hemisphere gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the right half of the body.
左半球接收感觉信息并控制右半身的运动功能。
The right hemisphere gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the left half of the body.
右半球接收感觉信息并控制左半身的运动功能。
This is called contralateral control.
这称为对侧控制。
Hemispheric specialization refers to the different and specific functions performed by the two hemispheres of the brain.
半球专业化是指大脑的两个半球执行的不同且特定的功能。
It is possible that the left hemisphere may be more active during logic and sequential tasks and the right during spatial and creative.
左半球在逻辑和顺序任务期间可能更活跃，而在空间和创造性任务期间，右半球可能更活跃。
But this is still under investigation.
但这仍在调查中。
Split brain patients, patients whose corpus callosum has been cut to treat epilepsy, cannot orally report information only presented to the right hemisphere, since the spoken language centers of the brain are usually located in the left hemisphere.
脑裂患者，即切除胼胝体以治疗癫痫的患者，不能口头报告仅呈现给右半球的信息，因为大脑的口语中心通常位于左半球。
半球（Hemisphere）
胼(pian2)胝(zhi1)体（Corpus Callosum）
（Areas of the Cerebral Cortex）大脑皮层区域：
The frontal lobe is a large area of the cerebral cortex located at the top front part of the brain.
额叶是大脑皮层的一大块区域，位于大脑前部的顶部。
Within the front lobe, and the very front, is the prefrontal cortex, and is believed to be essential in directing thought processes.
在前叶（额叶）内，也就是最前面，是前额叶皮层，被认为对指导思维过程至关重要。
The prefrontal cortex is said to act as the brain's central executive.
据传前额叶皮层充当大脑的中央执行器。
Researchers believe this part of the brain is responsible for abstract thought and emotional control.
研究人员认为，大脑的这一部分负责抽象思维和情绪控制。
Broca's area is in the frontal lobe.
布罗卡区位于额叶。
It is responsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech.
它负责控制与产生表达有关的肌肉。
Damage to Broca's area might leave one unable to make the muscle movements needed for speech.
布罗卡区受损可能会导致无法进行讲话所需的肌肉运动。
Wernicke's area is located in the temporal lobe.
韦尼克区位于颞叶。
Wernicke’s area interprets both written and spoken speech.
韦尼克区解释书面和口语。
Damage to this area affects our ability to understand language and result in our speech lacking syntax and grammatical structure.
对该区域的损害会影响我们理解语言的能力，并导致我们的言语缺乏句法和语法结构。
The parietal lobe is located behind the frontal lobe and at the top of the brain.
顶叶位于额叶后面和大脑的顶部。
The parietal lobe contains the sensory cortex also known as the somato-sensory cortex.
顶叶包含感觉皮层，也称为体感皮层。
The sensory cortex is a thin vertical strip that receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of our body.
感觉皮层是一个薄的垂直条带，可以接收来自我们身体其他部位的触觉。
The motor cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements.
运动皮层是参与计划、控制和执行随意运动的大脑皮层区域。
The sensory cortex, like the motor cortex, is organized top down: The top of the sensory cortex receives sensations from the bottom of the body, progressing down the cortex to the bottom, which processes signals from our face and head.
感觉皮层，就像运动皮层一样，是自上而下组织的：感觉皮层的顶部接收来自身体底部的感觉，沿着皮层向下进展到底部，它处理来自我们面部和头部的信号。
The temporal lobe processes sound sensed by our ears.
颞叶处理我们耳朵感知的声音。
Sound waves are processed by the ears, turned into neural impulses, and interpreted in our auditory cortices.
声波由耳朵处理，转化为神经冲动，并在我们的听觉皮层中进行解释。
occipital lobe is at the very back of the brain, farthest from eyes.
枕叶位于大脑的后部，离眼睛最远。
The major function of the occipital lobe is to interpret information from our eyes in our visual cortex.
枕叶的主要功能是在我们的视觉皮层中解释来自我们眼睛的信息。
Impulses from the retinas in our eyes are sent to the visual cortex to be processed.
来自我们眼睛视网膜的脉冲被发送到视觉皮层进行处理。
The endocrine system. controlled by the hypothalamus, is a set of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies.
内分泌系统。由下丘脑控制，是一组分泌激素的腺体，这些激素影响我们体内许多不同的生物过程。
The hypothalamus produces separate hormones that stimulate or inhibit hormone production in the pituitary gland, known as the master gland.
下丘脑产生单独的激素，刺激或抑制垂体（称为主腺）中的激素产生。
The adrenal glands produce adrenaline (epinephrine) which signals the flight or fight response.
肾上腺产生肾上腺素（肾上腺素），它发出飞行或战斗反应的信号。
This causes the autonomic nervous system to increase heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It prepares our body for action.
这会导致自主神经系统增加心率、呼吸和血压。它让我们的身体为行动做好准备。
Stressful situations cause the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone, which stimulates the adrenal gland.
压力情况会导致垂体释放促肾上腺皮质激素，从而刺激肾上腺。
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). These initiate the flight or fight response.
肾上腺髓质分泌肾上腺素和去甲肾上腺素。这些启动飞行或战斗响应。
Women's ovaries and men's testes produce sex hormones. Women produce estrogen in their ovaries, men produce testosterone in their testes.
女性的卵巢和男性的睾丸会产生性激素。女性在卵巢中产生雌激素，男性在睾丸中产生睾酮。
The different levels of these hormones explain some differences in behavior like aggression and sexual behavior.
这些激素的不同水平解释了攻击和性行为等行为的一些差异。
Many traits, like body shape, introversion, and height result from the combination of nature (genetic code) and nurture (the environment).
许多特征，如体型、内向和身高，都是先天（遗传密码）和后天（环境）结合的结果。
Every human cell contains 46 chromosomes in a 23 pair.
每个人类细胞都包含 23 对中的 46 条染色体。
The genetic material that makes up chromosomes is called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
构成染色体的遗传物质称为脱氧核糖核酸 (DNA)。
Segments of DNA, called genes, control the production of specific proteins that control some human traits.
DNA片段，称为基因，控制着控制某些人类特征的特定蛋白质的产生。
A genotype comprises all of the possible combinations of genes; a phenotype is the observable trait.
基因型包括所有可能的基因组合；表型是可观察到的特征。
Genes can either be dominant or recessive.
基因可以是显性的或隐性的。
A dominant trait is more likely to be expressed than a recessive trait.
显性性状比隐性性状更容易表达。
Expression of Dominant & Recessive Alleles
显性和隐性等位基因的表达：
Alleles Present Allele Expressed
存在基因 基因表达
Dominant, Dominant:Dominant
显性的，显性的:显性的
Dominant, Recessive:Recessive
显性的，隐性的：隐性的
Recessive, Recessive:Recessive
隐性的，隐性的：隐性的
Identical twins or monozygotic twins develop from one fertilized egg called a zygote.
同卵双胞胎或同卵双胞胎从一个称为合子的受精卵发育而来。
Research by Thomas Bouchard where he studied monozygotic twins given up at birth showed that IQ does depend slightly on the environment in which you are raised.
Thomas Bouchard 研究了在出生时放弃的单卵双胞胎的研究表明，智商确实略微取决于您的成长环境。
But IQ of twins raised apart are still highly correlated, so genetics still play a large role in how smart you are.
但是分开长大的双胞胎的智商仍然高度相关，因此遗传因素仍然对你的聪明程度起着重要作用。
Furthermore, twins raised in separate families share very similar physical qualities, which may cause others to treat them in similar way, creating the same effective psychological environment for both twins.
此外，在不同家庭长大的双胞胎具有非常相似的身体素质，这可能会导致其他人以相似的方式对待他们，从而为双胞胎创造相同的有效心理环境。
Sometimes chromosomes do not combine normally.
有时染色体不能正常结合。
Turner's syndrome is where the infant has only a single X chromosome.
特纳综合征是指婴儿只有一条 X 染色体。
Babies and children with Turner;s generally have traits such as shortness, webbed necks, and differences in physical sexual development.
患有特纳氏症的婴儿和儿童通常具有短小、蹼颈和身体性发育差异等特征。
Klinefelter's syndrome is when males have an extra X, resulting in XXY.
克兰费尔特综合症是男性有一个额外的 X，导致 XXY。
Sexual development is different and personality like extreme introversion (shyness, lack of social interaction) occurs.
性发展是不同的，并且会出现极端内向（害羞，缺乏社交互动）等个性。
Down Syndrome: Babies born with down syndrome are born with an extra chromosome on the twenty-first pair.
唐氏综合症：出生时患有唐氏综合症的婴儿出生时在第 21 对染色体上有一条额外的染色体。
Results in rounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes set far apart, and intellectual difficulties.
导致脸部圆润，手指和脚趾较短，眼睛分开很远，智力困难。
心理学卷·其之肆·感知之會
人有
- 神经生物学中的
刺激（ ）概念为光与低温高温等传递于体内的能量。 - 其可激发
神经冲动（ ），此举动被称为传导（ ）。
感觉
视觉介绍
可见光是电磁波谱的非常少的一部分
事物之所以能被看到有颜色，是因为光线反射的波长入了眼所呈现出来的。
- 比如朱砂反射朱砂红相关的波长，其他的波长一来全吸收了。
- 围棋中的黑棋吸收所有的波长，白棋反射所有的波长。
"光透过
"光穿过
"
"光之能量转换为
眼角膜（ ）：聚焦并传送光线至瞳孔。瞳孔（ ）：虹膜（ ）中心的洞，作用为允许光线冲向视网膜。视网膜（ ）：将光转换成神经能量，能量再由视杆细胞和视锥细胞开送。视网膜中央凹（ ）：视网膜中央的凹陷，也是视网膜中视觉（辨色力、分辨力）最敏锐的区域。- 视野的中心在此集中，视锥在此尤其专注。
视杆（ ）和视锥（ ）是视网膜内的受体。- 视杆感受（弱光）光刺激，视锥感受强光和颜色。
- 视杆和谁追受到光线刺激，就将（被转换的神经）能量传到第二层视觉细胞：双极细胞。
双极细胞（ ）将能量送到睫状神经节细胞。- 睫状
杠铃神经节细胞（ ）：构成视神经（ ），将能量送至大脑里的丘脑（ ）。
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眼睛对大脑：
The signal, travelling along the optic nerve, is transmitted to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus.
信号沿着视神经传递到外侧膝状核。
Lateral geniculate nucleus is a region of the thalamus.
外侧膝状核是丘脑的一个区域。
The lateral geniculate nucleus transmits the signal to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
外侧膝状核将信号传递到枕叶的视觉皮层。
Theories of Colour Vision
“色彩视觉理论”
Trichromatic Theory: We have three types of cones in our retina, cones that detect blue, red, and green, and that different activation combinations of the cones produces all the colours we see.
三色理论:我们的视网膜有三种类型的视锥细胞，这些视锥细胞能检测到蓝色、红色和绿色，而这些视锥细胞的不同激活组合能产生我们看到的所有颜色。
Trichromatic theory does not explain after images.
三色理论不能解释后图像。
Opponent Process Theory: Sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs: red/green, yellow/blue, black/white.
拮抗理论:视网膜上的感觉感受器是成对排列的:红/绿、黄/蓝、黑/白。
If one sensor is stimulated, its pair is inhibited from firing.
如果一个传感器受到刺激，其对就会被抑制。
If you stare at a red colour for awhile, you fatigue your sensors for red.
如果你盯着红色看一段时间，你的传感器就会对红色感到疲劳。
Opponent process theory explains after images.
拮抗理论解释后图像。
Opponent processing theory also explains color blindness; if color sensors come in pairs, and an individual is missing one pair (e.g., red/green) then he or she should have difficulty seeing those colors.
拮抗理论也解释了色盲;如果颜色传感器是成对的，而一个人缺少了一对(例如红/绿)，那么他或她应该很难看到这些颜色。
Sensation: HEARING
感觉:听力
Auditory sense uses energy in the form of sound waves instead of electromagnetic waves.
听觉利用声波而不是电磁波形式的能量。
Sound waves are created by vibrations which travel through the air and collected by our ears.
声波是由振动产生的，振动通过空气传播并被我们的耳朵收集。
The process of hearing:
聆听的过程:
Sound waves enter the outer ear.
声波进入外耳。
Sound waves cause the ear drum to vibrate.
声波引起耳膜振动。
Three tiny bones, stapes, incus, and malleus, in the middle ear amplify the vibrations and send them to the inner ear.
中耳有三个小骨头，镫骨、砧骨和锤骨，它们会放大振动，并将振动发送到内耳。
Vibrations hit the cochlea which is lined with hair cells; hair cells moves and trigger the release of neurotransmitters.
振动击中布满毛细胞的耳蜗;毛细胞移动并触发神经递质的释放。
Electrical signals sent by the auditory nerve travel to the brain.
听觉神经发出的电信号传输到大脑。
Theories of Hearing
听力的理论
Place Theory: The hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea.
位置理论:耳蜗中的毛细胞根据它们在耳蜗中的位置对不同频率的声音作出反应。
We sense pitch because the hair cells move in different places in the cochlea.
我们能感觉到音高是因为毛细胞在耳蜗的不同位置移动。
Research demonstrates that place theory accurately describes how hair cells sense the upper range of pitches but not in the lower tones.
研究表明，位置理论准确地描述了毛细胞是如何感知高音的，不过低音不算。
Frequency Theory: Lower tones are sensed by the rate at which hair cells fire.
频率理论:低音是通过毛细胞放电的速率来感知的。
We sense lower ranges of pitch because the hair cells fire at different frequencies in the cochlea.
我们能感觉到较低的音高，因为耳蜗中的毛细胞以不同的频率放电。
Sensation: SKIN
感觉:皮肤
Our skin has a set of nerves that detect temperature and pressure.
我们的皮肤有一组神经来检测温度和压力。
The amount of nerves in one area also varies;
一个区域的神经数量也各不相同;
your lips have many more nerves and can detect slight changes pressure or heat much easier than your lower back.
你的嘴唇有更多的神经，可以比你的下背部更容易察觉到压力或热量的微小变化。
Sensation: TASTE
感觉:味道
Certain nerves respond to chemical energy.
某些神经对化学能有反应。
Taste buds are located on the papillae, which are bumps on your tongue.
味蕾位于舌尖，舌尖是舌头上的肿块。
Some are also located on the roof of your mouth and cheeks.
有些还位于你的上颚和脸颊上。
Types of tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, savory(umami).
口味的类型:甜的，咸的，酸的，苦的，鲜的。
Sensation: OLFACTION
感觉:嗅觉
Olfaction relies on chemical receptors.
嗅觉依赖于化学受体。
Odor, scents, smells, make their way up to the olfactory bulb where the smell is processed by olfactory receptor cells.
“气味”到达嗅球，在那里气味被嗅觉感受器细胞处理。
Olfactory receptors connect to parts of the limbic system like the amygdala and hippocampus.
嗅觉感受器连接到边缘系统的某些部分，比如杏仁核和海马体。
These parts of the brain are responsible for emotion and memory, respectively.
大脑的这两个部分分别负责情感和记忆。
Sensation: PAIN
感觉:痛
Gate Control Theory: Explains that some pain messages have a higher priority than others:
门控制理论:解释了一些疼痛信息比其他信息有更高的优先级:
"When a higher priority message is sent, the 'gate' swings open for it and shuts off lower priority messages."
“当发送高优先级的信息时，‘门’为它打开，关闭低优先级的信息。”
There is not an actual gate, it's just an analogy.
这里没有真正的门，这只是个类比。
Sensation: ORIENTATION
感觉:取向
Vestibular Sense is responsible for how our body is oriented in space.
前庭感觉负责我们的身体如何在空间中定位。
Three semicircular canals in the inner ear give the brain information about our orientation. These canals are filled with fluid.
内耳的三个半规管向大脑提供我们的方位信息。这些管道充满了液体。
When that fluid moves, hair cells are activated, which cause nerve cells to fire, which tell our brain about our orientation in space.
当液体移动时，毛细胞被激活，导致神经细胞激活，从而告诉我们的大脑我们在空间中的方向。
Kinesthetic sense gives us feedback about the position and orientation of specific body parts.
动觉给我们反馈身体特定部位的位置和方向。
Receptors in our muscles and joints send information to our brain about our limbs.
我们肌肉和关节中的感受器向大脑发送有关四肢的信息。
One's leg "falling asleep" is a disruption of the kinesthetic sense.
一个人的腿“睡着了”是一种运动感觉的中断。
认知（Perception）
Perception: THRESHOLD
感知：阈值
Absolute Threshold / Just-Noticeable Difference is the smallest amount of a stimulus that we can detect (for any of the senses).
绝对阈值（JND）是我们可以检测到的最小刺激量（对于任何感官）。
Stimuli below the absolute threshold are said to be subliminal.
低于绝对阈值的刺激被称为阈下刺激。
Subliminal Messaging are stimuli that lie below our threshold of conscious awareness.
潜意识信息是低于我们有意识意识阈值的刺激。
Weber's law states that the change needed is proportional to the original stimulus.
韦伯定律指出，所需的变化与原始刺激成正比。
Perception: THEORIES
感知：理论
Signal Detection Theory investigates the effects of the distractions and interferences we experience while perceiving the world.
信号检测理论研究我们在感知世界时所经历的分心和干扰的影响。
Tries to account for what will be perceived and how we are motivated to detect certain stimuli.
试图解释将被感知的内容以及我们如何被激励去检测某些刺激。
Factors that influence our decisions are called response criteria.
影响我们决策的因素称为响应标准。
A False Positive is when we perceive a stimulus that is not there.
假正是当我们感知到不存在的刺激时。（自以为负实为正）
A False Negative is not perceiving something that is actually there.
假负没有感知到实际存在的东西。（自以为正实为负）
Perception: TOP DOWN PROCESSING
感知：自顶向下处理
Top Down Processing occurs when you use your previously acquired knowledge to fill in gaps in what you perceive.
当您使用先前获得的知识来填补您所感知的空白时，就会发生自上而下的处理。
A schema or schemata is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.
图式是有助于组织和解释信息的认知框架或概念。
Bottom up processing is the opposite of top down processing. Analysis of the stimulus begins with sense receptors and works up to the level of the brain and mind.
自下而上处理与自上而下处理相反。对刺激的分析从感觉感受器开始，一直到大脑和心智的水平。
The letter ‘A’ is really a black blotch broken down into features (/ - \) by the brain that we perceive as an ‘A’.
字母“A”实际上是一个黑色斑点，被我们认为是“A”的大脑分解成特征（/ - \）。
Bottom up processing occurs when we encounter something new or unfamiliar. Like when analysing a new language.
当我们遇到新的或不熟悉的东西时，就会发生自下而上的处理。就像在分析一种新语言时一样。
Feature Analysis: We analysis the lines, curves, motion, and our brain builds a picture from the bottom up.
特征分析：我们分析线条、曲线、运动，我们的大脑自下而上构建图像。
Top Down Processing is quicker, but more prone to errors.
自上而下的处理速度更快，但更容易出错。
Bottom up Processing is more accurate, but takes a longer amount of time.
自下而上处理更准确，但需要更长的时间。
Perception: GESTALT PRINCIPLES: The observation that humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects.
感知：格式塔原则：人类自然地将物体感知为有组织的模式和物体的观察。
Proximity: Objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in a group.
接近性：靠近的物体更有可能被认为属于一个群体。
Similarity: Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging in a group.
相似性：外观相似的物体更有可能被认为属于一个群体。
Continuity: Objects that form a continuous form are likely to be perceived as a continuous thing.
连续性：形成连续形式的物体很可能被认为是连续的事物。
Closure: Objects that make up a recognizable image are more likely to be perceived as in the same group.
封闭性：构成可识别图像的对象更有可能被视为在同一组中。
Connectedness: Objects that are connected to each other using colors, lines, frames, or other shapes are perceived as a single unit when compared with other elements that are not linked in the same manner.
连通性：与其他未以相同方式链接的元素相比，使用颜色、线条、框架或其他形状相互连接的对象被视为一个单元。
Perception: OTHER PRINCIPLES
感知：其他原则
Symmetry: Objects that are symmetrical to each other tend to be perceived as a unified group.
对称性：彼此对称的物体往往被视为一个统一的群体。
Size Constancy: Objects closer to our eyes will produce bigger images on our retinas, but we take this into account and know the object does not shrink or grow larger as in comes closer or goes farther away.
尺寸恒定性：靠近我们眼睛的物体会在我们的视网膜上产生更大的图像，但我们考虑到这一点，并且知道物体不会随着靠近或远离而缩小或变大。
Shape Constancy: Objects viewed from different angles have different shapes, but we do not think objects change shape as we look at them differently.
形状恒常性：从不同角度观看的物体具有不同的形状，但我们认为物体不会因为我们以不同的方式看待它们而改变形状。
Brightness Constancy: We perceive objects as being a constant color even as the light reflected off the object changes.
亮度恒定性：即使物体反射的光发生变化，我们也会将物体视为恒定的颜色。
You will mostly likely always perceive a brown set of stairs as brown, even if the brightness varies.
即使亮度变化，您很可能总是将一组棕色楼梯视为棕色。
Perception: PERCEIVED MOTION
感知：感知运动
Stroboscopic Effect: Images in a series of still pictures presented at a certain speed will appear to be moving.
频闪效应：以一定速度呈现的一系列静止画面中的图像会出现移动。
Phi-phenomenon: A series of lights flashed on and off at a particular rate will appear to be moving light.
飞现象：一连串灯以特定的速度闪烁，看起来像是移动的光。（就是手机会出现的那一个原地移动的圈）
Autokinetic Effect: If a spot light is projected steadily onto the same place on a wall of a dark room and people are asked to stare at it, they will report seeing it move even though it has not.
自动动力学效应：如果聚光灯稳定地投射到黑暗房间墙壁上的同一位置，并要求人们盯着它看，他们会报告说看到它在移动，即使它没有移动。
It is suggested that, with lack of peripheral information, eye movements which correct movements due to muscle fatigue are wrongly interpreted in the brain as movement of the perceived light.
有人认为，由于缺乏外围信息，纠正由于肌肉疲劳引起的运动的眼球运动在大脑中被错误地解释为感知光的运动。
Perception: Monocular Cues
感知：单眼线索
Linear Perspective: A type of perspective used by artists in which the relative size, shape, and position of objects are determined by drawn or imagined lines converging at a point on the horizon.
线性透视：艺术家使用的一种透视，其中对象的相对大小、形状和位置由在地平线上的一点汇聚的绘制或想象的线决定。
Relative Size Cue: The relative size of an object serves as an important monocular cue for depth perception. The size difference can make the larger object appear closer and the smaller object appears farther away.
相对尺寸提示：物体的相对尺寸是深度感知的重要单眼提示。尺寸差异可以使较大的物体看起来更近，而较小的物体看起来更远。
Interposition Cue: Objects that block the view of other objects must be closer to us.
插入提示：阻挡其他物体视线的物体必须离我们更近。
Texture Gradient: A change in the appearance of the grain or microstructure of a surface. Objects closest in the picture have detail, while things far off fade in appearance.
纹理梯度：表面颗粒或微观结构外观的变化。图片中最近的物体有细节，而远处的物体外观会褪色。
Shadowing: implies where the light source is coming from.
阴影：暗示光源来自哪里。
Perception: Binocular Cues
感知：双目线索
Binocular Disparity: Binocular disparity refers to the difference in image location of an object seen by the left and right eyes, resulting from the eyes’ horizontal separation.
双目视差：双眼视差是指左右眼看到的物体在图像位置上的差异，是由于眼睛水平分离造成的。
The brain uses binocular disparity to extract depth information from the two-dimensional retinal images.
大脑使用双眼视差从二维视网膜图像中提取深度信息。
Each eye sees an object from a slightly different angle, but when the object is close, there will be more disparity between the images from each eye. To demonstrate, hold your thumb way out, opening and shutting both eyes, and then bring your thumb to your nose, and do the same. Notice the relative change in horizontal distance.
每只眼睛从稍微不同的角度看到一个物体，但是当物体靠近时，每只眼睛的图像之间的差异会更大。为了演示，将拇指伸出来，睁开和闭上双眼，然后将拇指放在鼻子上，然后做同样的事情。注意水平距离的相对变化。（肯尼迪.jpg）
Our eyes converge as an object gets closer, and our eyes must move toward each other to keep focused on the object.
当一个物体越来越近时，我们的眼睛会聚在一起，我们的眼睛必须彼此靠近以保持专注于物体。
The brain receives feedback from the muscles controlling eye movement and interprets that the more the eyes converge, the closer the object must be.
大脑接收来自控制眼球运动的肌肉的反馈，并解释眼睛越集中，物体必须越近。
Perception: Depth Cues
感知：深度线索
Eleanor Gibson & the Visual Cliff:
埃莉诺吉布森和视觉悬崖：
Gibson found that an infant old enough to crawl will not crawl across the visual cliff, implying that the child has depth perception.
吉布森发现，一个足以爬行的婴儿不会爬过视觉悬崖，暗示孩子有深度知觉。
Other experiments demonstrate that depth perception develops when we are about three months old.
其他实验表明，当我们大约三个月大时，深度感知就会发展。
Perceptual rules once thought to be innate (determined by genes) are actually learned.
曾经被认为是天生的（由基因决定）的感知规则实际上是学习的。
Cultures that do not use monocular depth cues (such as linear perspective) in their art, do not see depth in pictures using these cues.
在他们的艺术中不使用单眼深度线索（例如线性透视）的文化，在使用这些线索的图片中看不到深度。
Cross-cultural research demonstrates that some basic perceptual sets (a predisposition to perceive something in a certain way) are learned from our culture and are not inborn.
跨文化研究表明，一些基本的感知集合（以某种方式感知事物的倾向）是从我们的文化中习得的，而不是与生俱来的。
待补充
心理学卷·其之伍·意識之態
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二元论者认为人类（和宇宙）由思想和物质（彼此独立）组成。
Matter is everything that has substance; thought is a non-material aspect that arises from matter.
“物质是一切有实质的东西；思想是由物质产生的非物质方面。”
Monists believe that everything is the same substance, and thought and matter are one in the same thing.
一元论者认为，一切都是同一个实体，思想和物质是同一个事物。
Consciousness is our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment.
意识是我们对自己和环境的意识水平。
Conscious level: Information about you and your environment that you are currently aware of.
意识层面：您当前了解的有关您和您的环境的信息。
Nonconscious level: Bodily processes, like heart rate and breathing, that you are not usually aware of.
无意识层面：您通常不知道的身体过程，例如心率和呼吸。
Preconscious level: Information about you or your environment that you are not currently thinking about but you could be; What's your favorite color?
前意识层面：关于您或您的环境的信息，您当前没有想到但您可能会想到；你最喜欢的颜色是什么？
Subconscious level: Information that you are not consciously aware of, but researchers know exists due to our behavior – Mere Exposure Effect as an example.
潜意识层面：您没有意识到的信息，但研究人员知道由于我们的行为而存在 - 仅以曝光效应为例。
Unconscious level: Psychoanalytic theory suggests some events and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious minds and are repressed into the unconscious mind (examples, sexual fantasies, hurtful memories, embarrassment, etc.).
无意识层面：精神分析理论表明，一些事件和感觉是我们有意识的头脑无法接受的，并被压抑到无意识的头脑中（例如，性幻想、伤害性记忆、尴尬等）。
Circadian Rhythm: During a 24-hour day, our metabolic processes follow a certain pattern.
昼夜节律：在 24 小时的一天中，我们的新陈代谢过程遵循一定的模式。
One way we can study the circadian rhythm is by using an electroencephalograph(EEG).
我们可以研究昼夜节律的一种方法是使用脑电图仪 (EEG)。
An EEG measures and records the electrical activity of your brain.
脑电图测量和记录大脑电活动。
（Non-rapid eye movement(NREM): 非快速眼动）
睡眠阶段（Sleep Stages）（及其释义）介绍：
Stage 1: Drowsiness; Small wave frequency (4-7hz). On EEG and NREM sleep.
第一阶段：嗜睡； 小波频率（4-7Hz）。 关于 EEG 和 NREM 睡眠。
Stage 2: Asleep; EEG dominated by thetawaves, but hz increases, high energy burst on EEG (sleep spindles) and NREM sleep.
第 2 阶段：睡着了； EEG 以 θ波频率 为主，但 hz 增加，EEG（睡眠纺锤波）和 NREM 睡眠的高能量爆发。
Stage 3: Delta waves (1-4hz); Less sleep sprindles, NREM sleep.
第三阶段：三角波（1-4hz）；睡眠少，非快速眼动睡眠。
Stage 4: Deepest sleep of NREM, delta waves, hard to wake, growth harmones released here, slow wave sleep (SWS).
第 4 阶段：NREM 的最深睡眠，三角波，难以醒来，此处释放的生长谐波，慢波睡眠 (SWS)。
REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep): Fast desynchronised EEG, body effectively paralysed, dreaming more likely to occur.
REM 睡眠（矛盾睡眠）：快速不同步的脑电图，身体有效瘫痪，更有可能发生梦想。
Move back to Stage 2: Move back to REM, repeat pattern, approximately every 90 minutes, ⅘ (80%) a night.
回到第 2 阶段：回到 REM，重复模式，大约每 90 分钟一次，⅘ (80%) 每晚。
Sleep Disorders
睡眠障碍
Insomnia: is the most common sleep disorder where an individual has persistent problems getting to sleep or staying asleep.
失眠症：是最常见的睡眠障碍，个人在入睡或保持睡眠方面存在持续问题。
Treatment: Reduce intake of caffeine and other stimulants, exercise, maintain a consist sleep pattern, and sleeping aids
治疗：减少咖啡因和其他兴奋剂的摄入量、锻炼、保持稳定的睡眠模式和助眠剂
Narcolepsy: Individuals suffer from periods of intense sleepiness and may fall asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times.
嗜睡症：个体患有强烈嗜睡的时期，并且可能在不可预测和不适当的时间入睡。
Treatment: Medication and changing sleep patterns to include naps at certain times of the day.
治疗：药物治疗和改变睡眠模式，包括在一天中的某些时间小睡。
Sleep Apnea: Apnea causes a person to stop breathing for short periods of time during the night; the person then wakes up, gasping for air, and then goes back to sleep, possibly without even noticing.
睡眠呼吸暂停：呼吸暂停会导致人在夜间短时间停止呼吸；然后这个人醒来，大口喘气，然后又睡着了，可能甚至没有注意到。
The person may not be able to have sustained deep sleep (delta wave/REM) and this can interfere with memory consolidation.
人可能无法持续深度睡眠（delta波/REM），这可能会干扰记忆巩固。
Sleep Apnea can be treated with a respiration machine that provides air for the person as he or she sleeps.
睡眠呼吸暂停可以用呼吸机治疗，该呼吸机在人睡觉时为他或她提供空气。
Night terrors are nightmares where the individual wakes up in a panic.
夜惊是个人在恐慌中醒来的噩梦。
Somnambulism is sleep walking. Occurs more commonly in children and occurs during the first few hours of the night in stage four sleep.
梦游症就是梦游（你搁这搁这呢）。更常见于儿童，发生在第四阶段睡眠的前几个小时。
Night terrors and somnambulism usual fade with age.
夜惊和梦游症通常会随着年龄的增长而消退。
Dreams are the story-like images we experience during sleep.
梦是我们在睡眠中经历的类似故事的图像。
Dreaming probably occurs most often during REM sleep, as evidenced by people reporting dreams most often after being woken by researchers during REM sleep.
梦可能最常发生在 REM 睡眠期间，正如人们在 REM 睡眠期间被研究人员唤醒后最常报告梦境所证明的那样。
Freudian psychoanalytical theory emphasizes dream interpretation as a method to uncover the repressed information in the unconscious mind.
弗洛伊德的精神分析理论强调梦的解释是一种揭示潜意识中被压抑信息的方法。
Freudian method (psychoanalysis) is subjective, hard to test, and psychoanalysis does not have much scientific backing.
弗洛伊德的方法（精神分析）是主观的，难以检验，精神分析没有太多的科学依据。
Manifest Content is the literal content of our dreams
清单内容是我们梦想的文字内容
If you dream about showing up at school 一丝不挂, the manifest content is your 一丝不挂的状态.
如果您梦想一丝不挂地出现在学校，那么明显的内容就是您的一丝不挂。
Latent Content is the unconscious meaning of the manifest content
潜在内容是显化内容的无意识意义
Showing up at school 一丝不挂 could mean that the person feels vulnerable or anxious at school.
一丝不挂出现在学校可能意味着该人在学校感到脆弱或焦虑。
Activation-Synthesis Theory: Our cerebral cortex is trying to interpret random electrical activity we have while sleeping; that is why dreams sometimes seem random and fictitious.
激活合成理论：我们的大脑皮层试图解释我们在睡觉时的随机电活动；这就是为什么梦有时看起来是随机的和虚构的。
Information Processing Theory & Dreams: Dreaming falls somewhere in-between Freud's psychoanalysis and Activation Synthesis Theory.
信息处理理论与梦：梦介于弗洛伊德的精神分析和激活综合理论之间。
Information processing theory points out that stress during the day will increase the number and intensity of dreams during the night.
信息处理理论指出，白天的压力会增加夜间做梦的次数和强度。
Proponents of information processing theorize that perhaps the brain is processing daily stress and information during REM dreams.
信息处理的支持者认为，大脑可能在快速眼动梦境中处理日常压力和信息。
Posthypnotic Amnesia: When people report forgetting events that occurred while they were hypnotized.
催眠后失忆症：当人们报告在他们被催眠时发生的遗忘事件时。
Posthypnotic Suggestion: A suggestion that a hypnotized person behave in a certain way after he or she is brought out of hypnosis.
催眠后暗示：暗示被催眠的人在被催眠后会以某种方式表现的暗示。
Role Theory states that hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness at all. Role theory suggests that some people are more easily hypnotized than others; this is called hypnotic suggestibility.
角色理论指出，催眠根本不是意识的替代状态。其表明，有些人比其他人更容易被催眠；这被称为催眠暗示性。
State Theory suggests that hypnosis meets some parts of the definition for an altered state of consciousness.
状态理论认为催眠符合意识状态改变定义的某些部分。
Hypnotists seem to be able to suggest that we become more or less aware of events and our environment.
催眠师似乎能够暗示我们或多或少地意识到事件和我们的环境。
(Ernest Hilgard's) Dissociation Theory suggests that hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily.
（欧内斯特·希尔加德的）分离理论认为催眠使我们自愿分裂我们的意识。
One part or level of our consciousness responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist, while another part or level retains awareness of reality.
我们意识的一部分或层次对催眠师的建议作出反应，而另一部分或层次保留对现实的认识。
When investigating hypnotism and pain control, Hilgard asked hypnotized participants to put their arm in an ice water bath; the hypnotized participants reported feeling no pain, but when Hilgard asked them to lift their index finger if any of them felt pain, most of them lifted their finger.
在研究催眠和疼痛控制时，希尔加德要求被催眠的参与者将他们的手臂放在冰水浴中；被催眠的参与者报告说没有感到疼痛，但是当希尔加德要求他们如果有任何人感到疼痛时抬起食指时，他们中的大多数人都抬起了手指。
Demonstrated the presence of a ‘hidden observer’ or some different level of consciousness.
证明存在“隐藏的观察者”或某种不同的意识水平。
Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and body.
精神活性药物是改变大脑和身体化学成分的化学物质。
Drugs are just chemicals. They are not inherently good or bad.
药物只是化学品。它们本质上没有好坏之分。
The route of administration affects the drug’s effect.
给药途径影响药物的效果。
Why do doctors use intravenous and gas masks to deliver drugs to patients?
为什么医生要使用静脉和防毒面具给病人送药？
The brain is protected from certain chemicals in the bloodstream by thicker walls surrounding the brain's blood vessels.
大脑血管周围较厚的壁可以保护大脑免受血液中某些化学物质的影响。
This is the blood-brain barrier.
这是血脑屏障。
Psychoactive drugs are able to pass this barrier and get into the brain.
精神活性药物能够通过这一屏障并进入大脑。
Molecules either mimic or block naturally occurring neurotransmitters in the brain.
分子模仿或阻断大脑中天然存在的神经递质。
Agonists: Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters.
激动剂：模仿神经递质的药物。
Antagonists: Drugs that block neurotransmitters.
拮抗剂：阻断神经递质的药物。
No matter what mechanism they use, drugs alter the natural levels of neurotransmitters, and affect consciousness.
无论他们使用什么机制，药物都会改变神经递质的自然水平，并影响意识。
Tolerance: A physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect.
耐受性：一种生理变化，需要更多相同的药物才能达到相同的效果。
Tolerance will cause withdrawal symptoms.
耐受会导致戒断症状。
Withdrawal symptoms are a craving for a drug's effect, and range from mild to severe depending on the potency/type of drug and the duration in which it was used.
戒断症状是对药物作用的渴望，其范围从轻微到严重，取决于药物的效力/类型和使用时间。
Stimulants are drugs that speed up bodily processes/metabolic activity.
兴奋剂是加速身体过程/代谢活动的药物。
For example, cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine (nicotine is actually both a stimulant and a depressant, but for the AP psychology test it is a stimulant).
例如，可卡因、安非他明和尼古丁（尼古丁实际上既是兴奋剂又是抑制剂，但对于 AP 心理测试来说，它是一种兴奋剂）。
Depressants slow down metabolic processes.
抑制剂减缓新陈代谢过程。
Examples are alcohol (has stimulant like effects at first, but is a depressant at higher doses), barbiturates, and heroin, morphine.
例子是酒精（起初具有类似兴奋剂的作用，但在较高剂量时是一种镇静剂）、巴比妥类药物和海洛因、吗啡。
Hallucinogens do not necessarily speed up or slow down the body; they change perceptions by interfering with sensory processing systems in the brain such as the thalamus.
致幻剂不一定会使身体加速或减速；它们通过干扰大脑中的感觉处理系统（如丘脑）来改变感知。
Examples: LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin (mushrooms), marijuana (for AP test).
示例：LSD、仙人掌、赛洛西宾（蘑菇）、大麻（用于 AP 测试）。
Morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine are all similar in chemical structure to opium, which comes from a poppy plant.
吗啡、海洛因、美沙酮、可待因在化学结构上都与鸦片相似，鸦片来自罂粟植物。
Opiates are depressants which cause drowsiness and a euphoria associated with elevated endorphin levels.
阿片类药物是一种镇静剂，会引起嗜睡和与内啡肽水平升高相关的欣快感。
Fairly addictive and withdrawal symptoms can be severe.
上瘾和戒断症状会“狠”严重。
Drugs: Reverse Tolerance
药物：反向耐受
Some amount of certain drugs can remain in the body for weeks: ingesting more THC at a later period may add to the lingering amount.
某些药物可能会在体内停留数周：后期摄入更多的 THC 可能会增加滞留量。
THC/Tetrahydrocannabinol is the active compound in marijuana and stores itself in fat cells.
THC/四氢大麻酚是大麻中的活性化合物，并储存在脂肪细胞中。
The addition of more substance to the lingering amount is sometimes called reverse tolerance because the second dose may be less than the first, but cause the same or greater effects
在滞留量中添加更多物质有时称为反向耐受，因为第二次剂量可能少于第一次，但会产生相同或更大的效果。
待补充
心理学卷·其之陆·學習之理
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学习被定义为由经验引起的行为的长期变化。
Brief changes in behavior are not considered learning.
行为的短暂变化不被视为学习。
Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity and neural plasticity, is the ability of the brain to change throughout an individual's life, e.g., brain activity associated with a given function can be transferred to a different location, the proportion of neurons can change, and synapses may strengthen or weaken over time
神经可塑性，也称为大脑可塑性和神经可塑性，是大脑在个体的一生中发生变化的能力，例如，与给定功能相关的大脑活动可以转移到不同的位置，神经元的比例可以改变，突触随着时间的推移可能会增强或减弱
Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.
长时程增强 (LTP)是基于近期活动模式的突触持续增强。
These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons.
这些是突触活动的模式，可在两个神经元之间产生持久的信号传输增加。
Classical conditioning involves forming an association with some sort of already naturally occurring event.
经典条件反射涉及与某种已经自然发生的事件形成关联。
Described by Ivan Pavlov and involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex or involuntary behavior (e.g., blinking, salivating, muscle tension).
由 Ivan Pavlov 描述，涉及在反射或非自愿行为（例如眨眼、流口水、肌肉紧张）之前放置中性信号。
Ivan Pavlov made some interesting observations about learning; coined classical conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov 对学习做了一些有趣的观察；创造了经典条件反射。
Unconditioned stimulus(US): The original stimulus – the food.
无条件刺激：原始刺激——食物。
Unconditioned response(UR): The response towards that unconditioned stimulus – the salivating.
无条件反应：对无条件刺激的反应——流口水。
Neutral stimulus(NS): A stimulus that has no conditioned response – a bell.
中性刺激：没有条件反应的刺激——音叉。
Conditioned stimulus(CS): What the organism has learned to pair – the bell.
条件刺激：有机体学会配对的东西——音叉。
Conditioned response(CR): The response from the conditioned stimulus.
条件反应：来自条件刺激的反应。
Delayed conditioning: Acquisition will occur fastest if the bell is rung, and while it is still ringing, the dogs are presented with food.
延迟调节：如果铃声响起，获取速度最快，而当铃声仍然响起时，狗就会得到食物。
Trace conditioning: During trace conditioning, the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS begins and ends before the US is presented. The stimulus-free period is called the trace interval or the conditioning interval.
'跟踪调节：在跟踪调节期间，条件刺激(CS)和无条件刺激(US)不重叠。 相反，CS 在US出现之前开始和结束。 无刺激期称为跟踪间隔或调节间隔。
Simultaneous conditioning: the CS and US are presented and terminated at the same time.
同时调节：CS 和 US 同时呈现和终止。
Backward conditioning: US is presented first and is followed by the CS. This is very ineffective.
后向条件反射：首先呈现 US，然后是 CS。 这是非常无效的。
Acquisition: Learning has taken place once the animal responds to the CS without a presentation of the unconditioned stimulus.
习得：一旦动物对 CS 做出反应而没有无条件刺激的表现，学习就发生了。
Extinction: The process of unlearning behavior. Extinction has taken place when the CS no longer exhibits a CR (bell no longer causes salivation).
灭绝：忘却行为的过程。 当 CS 不再表现出 CR（音叉不再引起流口水）时，就发生了灭绝。
Spontaneous recovery: Sometimes, after a CR has been extinguished and no further training has taken place, CR will appear in the presence of the CS.
自发恢复：有时，在 CR 熄灭且未进行进一步培训后，CR 会出现在 CS 面前。
Generalization: Animals may come to generalize the sound of the bell with other stimuli, like a tuning fork or a whistle.
概括：动物可能会用其他刺激来概括钟声，如音叉或哨子。
Discrimination: Animals can be trained to discriminate between stimuli, responding to a bell and not a whistle.
辨别力：可以训练动物区分刺激，对铃声而不是口哨做出反应。
John B. Watson:
Little Albert and Aversive conditioning
小阿尔伯特和厌恶性条件反射
吓小孩.jpg
Aversive conditioning is commonly used: people who paint their nails with a terrible tasting material to stop themselves from biting their nails is a form of aversive conditioning.
厌恶性调节是常用的：人们用一种难闻的材料涂指甲以阻止自己咬指甲是厌恶性调节的一种形式。
First order conditioning is the regular process of pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned response (bell with salivating).
一阶条件反射是将中性刺激与无条件反应（铃与流涎）配对的常规过程。
Second order conditioning is pairing another neutral stimulus (a light) with the previously conditioned stimulus (the bell) in order to eventually make the light a conditioned stimulus.
二阶条件反射是将另一个中性刺激（光）与先前条件刺激（铃铛）配对，以最终使光成为条件刺激。
铃响(NS) + 食盆(US) → 狗激(UR) ： 铃(响CS) → 狗激(CR)
（更牛逼的）铃响(CS) + 灯亮(NS) → 狗激(CR) ： 灯亮(CS) → 狗激(CR)
Learned Taste Aversions: If you ingest an unusual food or drink, and then you become nauseous, you’ll most likely develop an aversion to that particular food.
习得性厌恶：如果你摄入了一种不寻常的食物或饮料，然后你变得恶心，你很可能会对这种特定的食物产生厌恶感。
In some therapeutic settings, therapists give alcoholics a drinking containing a nausea-producing drug.
在某些治疗环境中，治疗师会给酗酒者提供含有引起恶心的药物的饮料。
John Garciaand Robert Koelling illustrate how rats more readily learned to make certain associations than others.
约翰·加西亚（John Garcia）和罗伯特·科林（Robert Koelling）说明了老鼠是如何比其他人更容易学会建立某些联系的。
They made rats learn that a noise would be paired with a shock and an unusual-tasting water with nausea.
他们让老鼠知道，噪音会伴随着震惊和不寻常的味道伴随着恶心的水。
However, the rats were unable to make the connection between unusual tasting water and the shock.
然而，老鼠无法将不寻常的水味与休克联系起来。
Edward Thorndike Experiment
爱德华桑代克实验
The law of effect states that if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened and the likelihood of the behavior will increase.
效应定律指出，如果行为的后果是令人愉快的，那么刺激-反应的联系就会加强，行为的可能性就会增加。
If the S-R connection is unpleasant, the likelihood of the behavior will decrease.
如果刺激-反应连接令人不愉快，则该行为的可能性会降低。
Operant conditioning is a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
操作性条件反射 是一个学习过程，通过该过程，行为的强度会通过强化或惩罚来改变。
First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist. Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior.
最早由美国心理学家 B. F. Skinner 描述。涉及在行为后应用“强化或惩罚”。
Behavior is either strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment.
通过强化或惩罚，行为要么得到加强，要么被削弱。
Reinforcer/reinforcement: Anything that makes a behavior more likely to occur is a reinforcer.
强化物：任何使行为更有可能发生的东西都是强化物。
Positive reinforcement refers to the addition of something pleasant. For example, food, shelter, water.
正强化是指增加一些令人愉快的东西。例如，食物、住所、水。
Negative reinforcement removing something unpleasant. For example, a loud noise, darkness, pain.
负强化' 去除不愉快的东西。例如，巨响、黑暗、疼痛。
Punishment is anything that makes a behavior less likely to reoccur.
惩罚 是任何使行为不太可能再次发生的东西。
Positive punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior. For example, a shock.
正惩罚：添加厌恶刺激以减少行为。例如，震惊。
Negative punishment (omission training): Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. For example, taking away a child’s toy.
负惩罚（遗漏训练）：去除令人愉悦的刺激以减少行为。例如，拿走孩子的玩具。
Escape conditioning (escape learning) occurs when an aversive stimulus is presented and an animal responds by leaving the stimulus situation.
逃避条件反射（逃避学习）发生在出现厌恶刺激并且动物通过离开刺激情境做出反应时。
Avoidance conditioning (learning) enables one to avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether.
回避条件反射（学习）使人能够完全避免不愉快的刺激。
Both escape and avoidance conditioning are types of negative reinforcement, both result in an increase of the behavior that terminated or avoided the aversive stimulus.
“逃避”和“回避条件反射”都是“负强化”的类型，都导致终止或避免厌恶刺激的行为增加。
(Reinforcement: Increases/Maintains Behavior)
（强化：增加/保持行为）
(Punishment: Decreases Behavior)
（惩罚：减少行为）
Positive(add stimulus)+Reinforcement: Add a pleasant stimulus to increase/maintain behavior
积极（添加刺激）+强化：添加令人愉悦的刺激以增加/保持行为
Positive(add stimulus)+Punishment: Add an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior
正面（增加刺激）+惩罚：增加厌恶刺激以减少行为
Negative(remove stimulus)+Reinforcement: Remove aversive stimulus to increase/maintain behavior
负面（去除刺激）+强化：去除厌恶刺激以增加/维持行为
Negative(remove stimulus)+Punishment: Remove pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior
负面（去除刺激）+惩罚：去除令人愉悦的刺激以减少行为
Shaping reinforces the steps used to reach a single desired behavior.
塑造强化了用于达到单一期望行为的步骤。
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The goal of shaping is to mold a single behavior (e.g., a bar press by a rat).
塑造的目标是塑造一个单一的行为（例如，老鼠的杠铃推举）。
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Chaining: Involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior.
链接：涉及加强按顺序发生的个体反应以形成复杂的行为。
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For example, rewarding an animal after completing an obstacle course.
例如，在完成障碍课程后奖励动物。
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The goal of chaining is to link together a number of separate behaviors into a more complex activity.
链接的目标是将许多单独的行为链接到一个更复杂的活动中。
Primary reinforcers things like food, water, rest, sex. They are rewarding generally because they help the organism survive.
初级强化物，如食物、水、休息、性。它们通常是有益的，因为它们帮助有机体生存。
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Secondary reinforcers are things that the organism has learned to have value. For example, saying thank you, getting good grades, showing up on time, etc.
次要强化物是有机体已经学会有价值的东西。例如，说谢谢，取得好成绩，准时出现等。
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Money is called a generalized reinforcer because it can be traded for virtually anything.
金钱被称为广义强化物，因为它几乎可以用来换取任何东西。
Reinforcement differs between individuals.
强化因人而异。
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Premack Principle: Whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the activity that is not preferred.
普雷马克原则：两种活动中的任何一种都可以用来加强不喜欢的活动。
Schedules of reinforcement are the rules that determine how often an organism is reinforced for a particular behavior.
强化时间表是确定有机体针对特定行为强化的频率的规则。
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Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses (press this lever 40 times and you get…).
固定比率：在固定数量的响应后提供强化（按此控制杆 40 次，您会得到……）。
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Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered after a behavior is performed following the passage of a fixed amount of time.
固定间隔：在经过固定的时间后，在行为执行后提供强化。
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Variable ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses (this is how slot machines work – sometimes they pay out on the first pull, sometimes after hundreds).
可变比率：在可变数量的响应后提供强化（这就是老虎机的工作方式——有时它们会在第一次拉动时支付，有时在数百次之后）。
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Variable interval: Reinforcement is delivered after a behavior is performed following the passage of a variable amount of time.
可变间隔：在经过可变的时间后，在执行行为后提供强化。
Albert Bandura
Observational Learning: People and animals learn through observing others.（看看你的。）
观察学习：人和动物通过观察他人来学习。
Modeling has two components: observation and imitation.
建模有两个组成部分：观察和模仿。
(Robert) Rescorla's Contingency model of classical conditioning reflects a cognitive spin on classical conditioning, positing that it is necessary for one event to reliably predict another for a strong association between the two to result – while Pavlov's model holds that the strength of an association between two evens is closely linked to the number of times they have been paired in time.
罗伯特·雷斯科拉（Robert Rescorla）的经典条件反射的偶然性模型反映了经典条件反射的认知旋转，假设一个事件必须可靠地预测另一个事件才能导致两者之间的强关联——而巴甫洛夫的模型认为两个事件之间关联的强度与他们及时配对的次数密切相关。
Abstract learning involves understanding concepts such as a tree or different rather than just learning to peck at a disk in order to secure a reward.
抽象学习涉及理解诸如树或不同的概念，而不仅仅是为了获得奖励而学习啄磁盘。
Pigeons have been shown a particular shape (square or triangle) and rewarded in one series of trails when they picked the same shape out of two choices. Suggests that pigeons can understand concepts rather than just S-R connections.
当鸽子从两种选择中挑选出相同的形状时，鸽子会被展示出一种特定的形状（正方形或三角形）并在一系列路径中获得奖励。表明鸽子可以理解概念而不仅仅是 S-R 连接。
Edward Tolman conducted an experiment with three sets of rats.
爱德华·托尔曼用三组老鼠做了一个实验。
The first set was rewarded for completing a maze.
第一组通过迷宫获得奖励。
The second set never received any rewards.
第二组没有得到任何奖励。
Third set was not rewarded during the first half of the trials.
第三盘在前半场的选拔赛中未获奖励。
The third group's performance was very similar to the second group – slow. However, the third group's performance improved dramatically and suddenly once it began to be rewarded for finishing the maze.
第三组的表现和第二组非常相似——慢。然而，第三组在完成迷宫后获得奖励后，表现突然显著改善。
The third group of rats learned their way around in the first trials, but their performance did not improve because they was no incentive to run the maze quickly.
第三组老鼠在第一次试验中学会了如何走，但它们的表现并没有提高，因为它们没有动力快速走迷宫。
Tolman suggested that the dramatic increase in performance was due to the rats making a mental map of the maze during the first trial and then used this knowledge once they were aware that they'd be rewarded.
Tolman认为，表现的显著提高是因为在第一次试验中，老鼠在大脑中绘制了迷宫地图，然后在意识到自己会得到奖励时使用了这一知识。
Wolfgang Kohler and Insightful learning
沃尔夫冈·科勒 (Wolfgang Kohler) 和有见地的学习
Insight learning occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem.
当一个人突然意识到如何解决问题时，就会发生洞察力学习。
Kohler argued that learning often happened in this sudden way due to insight rather than because of the gradual strengthening of the SR (stimulus-response) connection.
科勒认为，由于洞察力而不是因为 SR（刺激 - 反应）连接的逐渐加强，学习经常以这种突然的方式发生。
教学时间到，wikitable起——！（应急搬运，整改完毕）
| 固定间隔(Fixed Interval) | 定时奖励(Reward on fixed time basis) | 导致平均和不规则的表现(Leads to average and irregular performance) | 行为的快速消退(Fast extinction of behavior) |
| 固定比率(Fixed Ratio) | 奖励与特定数量的响应相关(Reward tied to specific number of responses) | 快速稳定的性能(Quick and stable performance) | 行为的中速消退(Moderately fast extinction of behavior) |
| 可变间隔(Variable Interval) | 不同时间段后给予的奖励(Reward given after varying periods of time) | 导致适度的高和稳定的性能(Leads to moderately high and stable performance) | 行为的缓慢消退(Slow extinction of behavior) |
| 可变比率(Variable Ratio) | 奖励某些行为(Reward given for some behaviors) | 快速稳定的性能(Quick and stable performance) | 行为消退非常缓慢(Very slow extinction of behavior) |
待补充
心理学卷·其之柒·認知之律
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记忆被定义为任何表明学习随着时间的推移而持续存在的迹象。
Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes.
认知心理学是对心理过程的研究。
Such as attention, language, memory, perception, problem solving, thinking, and creativity.
例如注意力、语言、记忆力、感知力、解决问题的能力、思考能力和创造力。
Information Processing Model proposes the stages that information passes through before it is stored.
信息处理模型提出了信息在存储之前所经过的阶段。
Sensory Memory is first stage in the information processing model and is the gateway between perception and memory.
感觉记忆是信息处理模型的第一阶段，是感知和记忆之间的门户。
Iconic memory is visual sensory memory and lasts for only a few tenths of a second.
标志性记忆是视觉感官记忆，仅持续十分之几秒。
Echoic memory is auditory sensory memory and lasts for three or four seconds.
回声记忆是听觉感觉记忆，持续三到四秒。
Items in sensory memory are constantly being replaced.
感觉记忆中的项目不断被替换。
George Sperling Experiment
乔治斯珀林实验
Participants were very briefly shown a matrix of characters.
参与者被非常简短地展示了一个字符矩阵。
Then a tone was sounded. Either a high tone, mid tone, or low tone.
然后一个音调响起。 高音、中音或低音。
Then participants were asked to recall the row of characters corresponding to that tone.
然后要求参与者回忆与该音调相对应的一排字符。
The experiment demonstrated that the entire grid must be held in sensory memory because participants did not know which tone would be cued.
实验表明，整个网格必须保持在感觉记忆中，因为参与者不知道会提示哪种音调。
Short-term memory is the memory system responsible for the temporary storage of information.
短期记忆是负责暂时存储信息的记忆系统。
Units of information are stored for a duration of 10-30 seconds.
信息单位的存储时间为 10-30 秒。
George Miller researched how many units we can hold in short-term memory.
乔治米勒研究了我们可以在短期记忆中保存多少单位。
He coined the term the magical number seven plus/minus two. You can hold roughly 7±2 units of information in short-term.
他创造了神奇的数字七加/减二这个词。你可以在短期内持有大约 7±2 个单位的信息。
Maintenance Rehearsal is simple repetition to keep an item in short-term memory until it can be used.
维护排练是简单的重复，以将项目保留在短期记忆中，直到可以使用为止。
Elaborative Rehearsal involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory.
精心排练涉及思考新信息如何与已经存储在长期记忆中的信息相关联。
Mnemonic devices are memory aides. They are strategies to help store information.
助记符设备是记忆助手。它们是帮助存储信息的策略。
Chunking involves taking long strings of information, and grouping them into smaller, more manageable bits of information.
分块涉及获取长串信息，并将它们分组为更小、更易于管理的信息位。
Method of Loci: This involves imagining what you're trying to remember.
定位方法：这涉及想象您要记住的内容。
Dual-coding hypothesis: It is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone.
双重编码假设：记住带有相关图像的单词比单独记住单词或图像更容易。
Self-reference effect: It is easier to remember things that are personally relevant.
自我参照效应：更容易记住与个人相关的事情。
State-dependent memory: Information is more likely to be remembered if the attempt to retrieve it occurs in a situation similar to the situation in which in was encoded.
状态相关记忆：如果试图检索信息的尝试发生在与编码 in 的情况相似的情况下，则更有可能记住信息。
State-dependent memory also applies to information encoded while in a particular state of mind, such as when information is encoded under the influence of a drug (e.g., caffeine).
状态依赖记忆也适用于在特定心理状态下编码的信息，例如当信息在药物（例如咖啡因）的影响下编码时。
Long-term memory is defined as our “permanent” storage.
长期记忆被定义为我们的“永久”存储。
Declarative (explicit) memories: Are memories a person can consciously retrieve.
陈述性（显性）记忆：一个人可以有意识地检索的记忆。
Nondeclarative (implicit) memory: Are memories beyond conscious consideration.
非陈述性（隐性）记忆：是超出有意识考虑的记忆。
Episodic memories are of specific events, stored as a sequential series.
情景记忆是特定事件的，存储为连续系列。
示例：你去和____闲逛的时候，你们去____，然后_____
Semantic memories are general knowledge of the world, stored as facts or categories.
语义记忆是世界的一般知识，存储为事实或类别。
示例：俄罗斯的首都是_____
Procedural memories are memories of skills and how to perform them.
程序性记忆是对技能以及如何执行它们的记忆。
示例：给手机充电。
Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. A person who sees the word “green” will be slightly faster to recognize the word “tree.” This happens because green and tree are closely associated in memory.
启动是内隐记忆效应，其中暴露于刺激会影响对后来刺激的反应。看到“绿色”这个词的人会稍微更快地识别“树”这个词。发生这种情况是因为绿色和树在内存中密切相关。
Classical Conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (bell).
经典条件反射是指一种学习过程，其中生物有效的刺激（食物）与先前的中性刺激（铃铛）配对。
Declarative Memory: Sematic memory, Episodic memory.
陈述性记忆：语义记忆、情景记忆。
Nondeclarative Memory: Procedural, Classical conditioning, Priming.
非陈述性记忆：程序，经典条件反射，启动。
Herman Ebbinghaus was a pioneer in memory research;
赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯是记忆研究的先驱。
He would write out very long lists of arbitrary words and try to recall them.
他会写出很长的任意单词列表并尝试回忆它们（例如，CUH、TIR、GHO、SWE 等）。
Herman Ebbinghaus is most famous for developing the learning curve and the forgetting curve.
赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯以发展学习曲线和遗忘曲线而闻名。
The learning curve described by Ebbinghaus refers to how fast one learns information.
艾宾浩斯描述的学习曲线是指一个人学习信息的速度。
The sharpest increase occurs after the first try and then gradually evens out, meaning that less and less new information is retained after each repetition.
第一次尝试后增加最多，然后逐渐变平，这意味着每次重复后保留的新信息越来越少。
Forgetting Curve: You will forget information at a exponential rate at first.
遗忘曲线：一开始你会以指数速度遗忘信息。
Eventually you will only remember a small amount of what you learned, unless you practice.
最终你只会记住一小部分你学到的东西，除非你练习。
Levels of Processing Model: Memories, in the levels of processing model, are neither short nor long term.
处理模型的层次：在处理模型的层次上，记忆既不是短期的，也不是长期的。
Memories are deeply processed or shallowly processed.
记忆被深加工或浅加工。
This model explains why we remember stories better than plain statements.
这个模型解释了为什么我们比简单的陈述更能记住故事。
Shallowly Processed: Images, sounds
浅层处理：图像、声音
Deeply Processed: Stories.
深加工：故事。
The next thing we will be discussing is our ability to recall information.
接下来我们要讨论的是我们回忆信息的能力。
显示5秒后隐藏隐藏信息，然后尽你所能用笔记录记住的所有单词。
Rubber Bug Dislocate
Former Trip Mischief
Tease States Dog Obvious
The primacy effect predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list.
首要效应预测我们更有可能回忆起列表开头出现的项目。
The recency effect demonstrates our ability to recall the items at the end of list.
近因效应展示了我们回忆列表末尾项目的能力。
Primacy and recency effect are a part of the Serial Position Effect. This is also called the serial position curve.
首要效应和近因效应是序列位置效应的一部分。 这也称为串行位置曲线。
Serial Position Effect is the tendency for recall to be the highest for the first and last items in a series.
序列位置效应是一系列中第一个和最后一个项目的召回率最高的趋势。
Have you ever tried to recall something, but you just cannot say it?
你有没有试过回忆一些事情，但你就是不能说出来？
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the inability to remember information you've previously stored.
舌尖现象是无法记住您以前存储的信息。
怎么会事呢？
Retrieval
恢复
Semantic Network Theory considers knowledge as semantic relations between concepts in a network. This is often used as a form of knowledge representation.
语义网络理论认为知识是网络中概念之间的语义关系，经常被用作知识表示的一种形式。
In a semantic network, each idea is called a node and nodes are connected to one another similar to how roads are connected to cities. But the connection between the nodes are not always created equal. The strength of the connection is related to how frequently the connection is used.
在语义网络中，每个想法都被称为一个节点，节点之间的连接就像道路与城市之间的连接一样。但是节点之间的连接并不总是相等的。连接的强度与使用连接的频率有关。
Spreading Activation: The activation of a few nodes can lead to a pattern of activation within the network that spreads onward.
扩散激活:几个节点的激活可以导致网络内扩散的激活模式。
Semantic network theory may explain why the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs because if a connection between two nodes is weak, we may have trouble retrieving that node of information.
语义网络理论可以解释为什么会出现舌尖现象，因为如果两个节点之间的连接薄弱，我们可能很难检索到那个信息节点。
Flashbulb Memory is a memory that is highly detailed and exceptionally vivid.
闪光灯记忆是一种非常详细和非常生动的记忆。
It is said to be like a 'snapshot' of a moment that was surprising and consequential.
据说，这就像一个瞬间的“快照”，这是令人惊讶的和重要的。
Constructed Memory, also know as Memory Reconstruction: A memory of an event that did not actually happen or is only partially fact based.
建构记忆，也被称为记忆重建:对一个事件的记忆，实际上没有发生或只是部分基于事实。
Studies show that leading questions can easily influence us to recall false details, and questioners can create an entirely new memory by repeatedly asking insistent questions.
研究表明，引导性问题很容易影响我们回忆错误的细节，提问者可以通过反复问坚持的问题来创造一个全新的记忆。
遗忘Forgetting
One cause of forgetting is natural decay. As time goes on, the memories we have fade.
遗忘的原因之一是自然腐烂。时光荏苒，我们的记忆渐渐淡去。
But another factor in forgetting is interference. Sometimes other information in your memory competes with what you're trying to recall.
但另一个导致遗忘的因素是干扰。有时，您记忆中的其他信息会与您试图回忆的内容竞争。
Retroactive interference: Learning new information interferes with the recall of older information.
追溯干扰：学习新信息会干扰旧信息的回忆。
Proactive interference: Older information learned previously interferes with the recall of information learned more recently.
主动干扰：以前学到的旧信息会干扰对最近学到的信息的回忆。
Amnesia is forgetting or the inability to encode new memories due to brain trauma or disease.
健忘症是由于脑外伤或疾病而忘记或无法编码新记忆。
Anterograde Amnesia is the inability to encode new memories as a result of damage to the hippocampus.
顺行性健忘症是由于海马体受损而无法编码新记忆。
Retrograde Amnesia is a loss of memory for events that occurred or were learned due to brain trauma or disease. But one has the ability to encode new information.
逆行性健忘症是对因脑外伤或疾病而发生或学习的事件的记忆丧失，但是一个人有能力对新信息进行编码。
语言Language
Language and thought are interactive processes. Here we will be considering phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics, and the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
语言和思想是互动的过程。在这里，我们将考虑音素、词素、句法、语义和语言相对性假设。
Phonemes are the smallest units of sound used in language. Phonemes are studied in linguistics. An example is the English phoneme /k/, which occurs in words such as cat, kit, scat, skit.
音素是语言中使用的最小的声音单位。音素是在语言学中研究的。一个例子是英语音素 /k/，它出现在诸如 cat、kit、scat、skit 之类的词中。
A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding.
语素是语言中最小的语法单位。语素与单词不同，两者的区别在于语素可能独立也可能不独立，而根据定义，单词是独立的。
例子：
-ed = 把动词变成过去时
un- = 表示不的前缀
a
I
Syntax: Is the order in which we use words.
语法：是我们使用单词的顺序。
Semantics: Refers to word meaning or word choice.
语义：指词义或词选择。
Psychologist Benjamin Whorf theorized that the language we use might control and limit our thinking.
心理学家本杰明·沃尔夫认为，我们使用的语言可能会控制和限制我们的思维。
The theory that the language we use has influence over our thinking is called the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
我们使用的语言对我们的思维有影响的理论被称为语言相对论假设。
For example, there are 50 Eskimo words for “snow.” This may have practical value for them.
例如，“雪”有 50 个爱斯基摩语单词。这可能对他们有实际价值。
Language acquisition occurs at about four months.
语言习得大约在四个月时发生。
Holophrastic stage (one-word stage): This is when babies speak in single words (holophrases). Usually occurs by a baby’s first birthday.
Holophrastic 阶段（单字阶段）：这是婴儿说单个单词（holophrases）的时候。通常发生在婴儿的第一个生日。
Telegraphic speech (two-word stage): This is when toddlers will combine the words they can say into simple commands. Occurs by 18 months.
电报语音（两个单词阶段）：这是幼儿将他们可以说的单词组合成简单命令的时候。发生在 18 个月。
Overgeneralization: By age three, a child knows many words, but can make mistakes by overextending the rules of language. For example, they may say “I goed(went) to the store” or “I rided(rode) my bike.”
过度概括：到三岁时，孩子会知道很多单词，但可能会因过度扩展语言规则而犯错。例如，他们可能会说“I goed(went)”或“I rided(rode)”。
Noam Chomsky theorized that humans are born with the ability to learn a language rapidly. This inborn ability to learn language is called the language acquisition device or the nativist theory of language acquisition.
诺姆乔姆斯基的理论认为，人类生来就有快速学习语言的能力。这种与生俱来的语言学习能力被称为语言习得装置或语言习得的先天论。
Chomsky proposed that there is a critical period after birth for learning language.
乔姆斯基提出，出生后有一个学习语言的关键期。
启发式Heuristic
Algorithm: A rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula.
算法：通过使用公式来保证正确解决方案的规则。
A heuristic is a short cut for problem solving.
启发式是解决问题的捷径。
For example, if you were trying to guess your friend's password for their email, what are some of the first guesses that come to mind?
例如，如果您试图猜测您朋友的电子邮件密码，那么您首先想到的猜测是什么？
姓名，生日
Availability Heuristic: Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind.
可用性启发式：根据最初想到的类似情况的示例来判断情况。
For example, you may see a murder on the news in a specific neighbourhood, and then conclude, when you're in that neighborhood, that you're in a highly unsafe area because the first thing that came to mind was the news clip.
例如，您可能会在特定社区的新闻中看到谋杀案，然后得出结论，当您在该社区时，您处于高度不安全的区域，因为首先想到的是新闻剪辑。
Representative Heuristic: Judging a situation or person based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind.
代表性启发式：根据各个方面与他或她心中的原型的相似程度来判断情况或人。
解决问题Problem Solving
Using heuristics is typically helpful but it can lead to specific problems.
使用启发式通常很有帮助，但它可能会导致特定的问题。
Belief Bias/Perseverance: This occurs when we maintain a belief even after evidence for the belief is contradicted.
信念偏见/毅力：即使在信念的证据相互矛盾之后，我们仍保持信念时，就会发生这种情况。
Confirmation Bias: This is searching for information or evidence that supports a belief instead of searching for evidence to the contrary. This can hinder problem solving and objectivity.
确认偏差：这是寻找支持信念的信息或证据，而不是寻找相反的证据。这会阻碍问题的解决和客观性。
Mental Set (Rigidity): This is a tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past.
思维定势（刚性）：这是一种只看到过去有效的解决方案的趋势。
Functional Fixedness: This is the tendency to assume that a given item is useful for only what it was designed to do.
功能固定性：这是一种假设给定项目仅对其设计用途有用的趋势。
Functional fixedness is opposite to creative thinking.
功能固定与创造性思维相反。
创造力Creativity
Creativity is hard to define.
创造力很难定义。
When judging whether something is creative, we look at whether it is original or novel and whether it somehow fits the situation.
在判断一个东西是否有创意时，我们会看它是原创的还是新颖的，以及它是否适合这种情况。
Convergent Thinking: This is thinking pointed toward one solution. Determining the correct answer to a multiple choice question is an example.
收敛思维：这是指向一种解决方案的思维。确定多项选择题的正确答案就是一个例子。
Divergent Thinking: This is thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question.
发散思维：这是一种寻找问题的多个可能答案的思维。
Divergent thinking is similar to brainstorming in that it involves coming up with many different ideas to solve a single problem.
发散思维类似于头脑风暴，因为它涉及提出许多不同的想法来解决一个问题。
Divergent thinking is more closely related with creativity; creative activities usually involve thinking of new ways to use what we are familiar with to create something new.
发散思维与创造力的关系更为密切；创造性活动通常涉及思考使用我们熟悉的东西创造新事物的新方法。
心理学卷·其之捌·動機之激
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动机：某人以某种方式行事的一个或多个原因。
Emotion: A natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.
情绪：源于个人环境、情绪或与他人关系的一种自然本能的心理状态。
Homeostasis is a balanced internal state.
体内平衡是一种平衡的内部状态。
Drive Reduction Theory: A need that is biological, and a drive to fulfill that need.
驱动力减少理论：一种生物需求，以及满足这种需求的驱动力。
If we do not eat, drink, or are cold or physical hurt, we are not in homeostasis, and a ‘drive’ is created to get back to homeostasis
如果我们不吃不喝、不感冒或身体受到伤害，我们就不会处于体内平衡状态，并且会产生一种“驱动力”来恢复体内平衡
Drives are categorized into primary and secondary drives.
驱动力分为主要驱动力和次要驱动力。
Primary drives are biological drives like thirst food, warmth, shelter, and sex.
主要驱动力是生物驱动力，如口渴、温暖、住所和性。
Secondary drives are learned drives, like how we have learned to acquire money because money can get us a house, food, clothing, etc.
次要驱动力是习得的驱动力，就像我们如何学会获取金钱一样，因为金钱可以为我们带来房子、食物、衣服等。
Secondary drives help get us primary drives.
次要驱动力帮助我们获得主要驱动力。
Lack of Homeostasis → Need → Drive → Motivation to Act → Homeostasis → L……
缺乏体内平衡→需要→驱动→行动动机→体内平衡→缺……
Criticism of Drive Reduction Theory
对驱动减少理论的批评
Drive Reduction Theory cannot explain why someone would strive to be an Olympic athlete or why a scientist might want to conduct basic research.
驱动力减少理论无法解释为什么有人会努力成为一名奥林匹克运动员，或者为什么科学家可能想要进行基础研究。
Arousal theory: States that we seek an optimum level of arousal.
唤醒理论：我们寻求最佳唤醒水平的状态。
Each individual has a different need for excitement or arousal, and we are motivated by activities that will help us achieve their own optimum.
每个人对兴奋或唤醒的需求不同，我们的动力来自于有助于我们实现最佳状态的活动。
耶克斯-多德森定律(Yerkes-Dodson Law)
Most of us perform best with an optimum level of arousal, although this varies with different activities.
我们大多数人在最佳唤醒水平下表现最好，尽管这会因不同的活动而异。
We might perform well at an easy task with a very high level of arousal, but the same high level of arousal would prevent us from performing a difficult task.
我们可能在一项具有非常高的唤醒水平的简单任务中表现良好，但同样高水平的唤醒会阻止我们执行一项困难的任务。
Opponent-process theory: Attempts to explain addiction. It states that people are usually at a normal, or baseline state, and that move away from the baseline state.
对抗过程理论：试图解释成瘾。它指出人们通常处于正常或基线状态，并且远离基线状态。
We feel good from drinking the coffee, because caffeine blocks certain "tiredness" neurotransmitters from binding to neurons in our brain.
我们喝咖啡感觉很好，因为咖啡因会阻止某些“疲劳”神经递质与我们大脑中的神经元结合。
But, we eventually feel an opponent-process, meaning a motivation to return to our baseline.
但是，我们最终会感觉到对抗的过程，这意味着有动力回到我们的基线。
Withdrawal occurs, and we want to relieve withdrawal symptoms, so we drink more coffee; eventually, our baseline is adjusted down.
发生戒断，我们想缓解戒断症状，所以我们多喝咖啡；最终，我们的基线被向下调整。
Incentives are external stimuli that motivate behavior.
'激励是激发行为的外部刺激。
Incentives are stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning.
激励是我们因学习而被吸引的刺激。
We learn to associate some stimuli with rewards and others with punishment and we are motivated to seek rewards.
我们学会将一些刺激与奖励联系起来，而将其他刺激与惩罚联系起来，我们有动力去寻求奖励。
Criticisms of Maslow
对亚伯拉罕马斯洛的批评
People sometimes act in ways that do not correspond to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
人们有时会以不符合马斯洛需求层次的方式行事。
Example: Feeding children before yourself.
示例：先喂孩子。
Biological basis for Hunger
饥饿的生物学基础
The hypothalamus monitors and helps to control body chemistry.
下丘脑监测并帮助控制身体化学。
It regulates glucose and insulin.
它调节葡萄糖和胰岛素。
Electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus causes animals to eat.
下丘脑外侧的电刺激导致动物进食。
Destruction of the lateral hypothalamus eliminates hunger, and the animal does not eat.
下丘脑外侧的破坏消除了饥饿，动物不吃东西。
Electrical stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus causes an animal to stop eating. If this area is destroyed, the animal will continue to eat.
下丘脑腹内侧的电刺激会导致动物停止进食。如果该区域被破坏，动物将继续进食。
Set Point Theory describes how the hypothalamus might decide what impulse to send (eat or not eat).
设定点理论描述了下丘脑如何决定发送什么冲动（吃或不吃）。
Set-point theory states that the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain body weight.
设定点理论指出，下丘脑想要保持一定的体重。
The hypothalamus tells us to eat or stop eating when some set point is reached and raises or lowers our metabolic rate to maintain a certain weight.
当达到某个设定点并提高或降低我们的新陈代谢率以保持一定的体重时，下丘脑会告诉我们进食或停止进食。
Psychological factors in hunger: External vs. Internal.
饥饿的心理因素：外部与内部
Externals are individuals motivated to eat by external cues such as the attractiveness of the food, availability of food, whether a McDonald's is nearby.
外部因素是由外部线索（例如食物的吸引力、食物的供应情况、附近是否有麦当劳）激发进食的个体。
Internals are individuals less affected by the presence and presentation of food and respond to hunger more from internal processes.
内部人是受食物存在和呈现影响较小的个体，并且更多地通过内部过程对饥饿做出反应。
暴暴暴暴食症(Bulimia)
Bulimics eat a huge amount of food in a short period of time, and then get rid of the food by vomiting, excessive exercise, or by using laxatives.
暴食症患者在短时间内吃下大量食物，然后通过呕吐、过度运动或使用泻药来摆脱食物。
Anorexia Nervosa: anorexics stave themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight.
神经性厌食症：厌食症患者的体重低于正常体重的 85%。
The difference between an anorexic person and a bulimic is their weight. Anorexic people are generally 85% below their weight while bulimics tend to be of average weight.
厌食症患者和暴食症患者的区别在于他们的体重。 厌食症患者的体重通常比他们的体重低 85%，而暴食症患者的体重往往是平均体重。
What are the causes of anorexia and bulimia?
厌食症和贪食症的原因是什么？
Possibly due to the emphasis on body weight in a specific culture. Western culture emphasizes a low body weight as a sign of a woman's beauty.
可能是由于在特定文化中强调体重。西方文化强调低体重是女性美丽的标志。
Obesity: people who are severely over weight.
肥胖：严重超重的人。
Obese people have unhealthy eating habits or may be genetically predisposed to eat more.
肥胖的人有不健康的饮食习惯，或者可能在基因上倾向于吃得更多。
"Genetics and eating disorders"
“遗传与饮食失调”
Family history is also another possibility.
家族史也是另一种可能。
Having family with prior eating disorders increases one's likelihood of having a disorder.
有家人以前患有饮食失调会增加一个人患失调症的可能性。
William Masters and Virginia Johnson documented sexual response cycle in men and women.
威廉马斯特斯和弗吉尼亚约翰逊记录了男性和女性的性反应周期。
Initial excitement: Genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heartrate increase
最初的兴奋：生殖器区域充血，♯♯勃起，阴蒂肿胀，呼吸和心率增加
Plateau phase: respiration and heartrate continue at elevated levels, genitals secrete fluid in preparation for intercourse
高原期：呼吸和心率持续升高，生殖器分泌液体以准备xx
Orgasm: Rhythmic genital contractions that help conception, respiration, and heart rate increase, male ejaculation, followed by pleasurable euphoria.
性高潮：有节奏的生殖器收缩有助于受孕、呼吸和心率加快，男性SJ，然后是愉悦的欣快感。
Resolution phase: Respiration and heart rate return to normal. Men experience refractory period (a time period that must elapse before another orgasm can be achieved), women do not have a similar cycle and can repeat the cycle immediately.
Homosexually is not related to traumatic childhood experiences, parenting styles, the quality of relationships with parents, masculinity, or femininity, or whether we are raised by heterosexual or homosexual parents.
同性恋与童年的创伤经历、养育方式、与父母的关系质量、男性气质或女性气质，或者我们是由异性恋还是同性恋父母抚养长大无关。
Although some researchers believe environmental influences probably affect sexual orientation, these factors have not yet been identified.
尽管一些研究人员认为环境影响可能会影响性取向，但这些因素尚未确定。
Some studies indicate that specific brain structures might differ in size in the brains of homosexuals compared with heterosexuals.
一些研究表明，与异性恋者相比，同性恋者大脑中特定的大脑结构在大小上可能有所不同。
Twin studies indicate a genetic component because if one twin is homosexual, there is a higher probability that the other is too.
双胞胎研究表明存在遗传因素，因为如果一个双胞胎是同性恋，那么另一个双胞胎的可能性更高。
Research also theorizes that hormones present within the womb might change the developing brain structure, and influence sexual orientation.
研究还推测，子宫内的激素可能会改变发育中的大脑结构，并影响性取向。
Achievement Motivation is one theory that tries to explain motivations behind more complex behaviors.
成就动机是一种试图解释更复杂行为背后的动机的理论。
Studies in achievement motivation find that some people have high achievement motivation and consistently feel motivated to challenge themselves more than other people do.
对成就动机的研究发现，有些人具有很高的成就动机，并且始终比其他人更有动力挑战自己。
Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation
外在和内在动机
Extrinsic motivators are rewards that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves.
外在动机是我们从外部取得成就的奖励。
Intrinsic motivators are rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction from hobbies, work, friends, family, etc.
内在动机是我们在内部获得的奖励，例如来自爱好、工作、朋友、家人等的享受或满足。
Knowing what type of motivation an individual responds to can give parents, managers, leaders, etc., insight into what strategies to use to get things done.
了解个人对什么类型的动机做出反应可以让父母、经理、领导者等深入了解使用什么策略来完成工作。
Studies show that if we want an advantageous behavior to continue, intrinsic motivation is most effective.
研究表明，如果我们想要一种有利的行为继续下去，内在动机是最有效的。
Extrinsic motivators are very effective for a short period of time, and the behavior underlying them will disappear shortly after the external reward disappears.
外在激励因素在短时间内非常有效，其背后的行为会在外在奖励消失后不久消失。
Management Theory
管理理论
Theory X: some managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment.
理论X：一些管理者认为，员工只有在得到福利奖励或受到惩罚威胁时才会工作。
Theory Y: managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.
理论Y：管理者认为员工有内部动机去做好工作，政策应该鼓励这种内部动机。
Types of Conflict
冲突类型
Approach-approach: Occurs when you must choose between two desirable outcomes.
方法-方法：当您必须在两个理想结果之间进行选择时发生。
Avoidance-avoidance: Occurs when you must choose between two unattractive outcomes.
回避-回避：当你必须在两个没有吸引力的结果之间做出选择时发生。
Approach-avoidance: exists when one event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features.
避免接近：当一个事件或目标同时具有有吸引力和不吸引人的特征时存在。
Multiple approach-avoidance: choosing between two or more things, each of which has both desirable and undesirable features.
多重接近避免：在两个或多个事物之间进行选择，每个事物都具有可取和不可取的特征。
Theories of Emotion:
情感理论：
James-Lange Theory of Emotion states that we feel emotion because of biological stress signals.
James-Lange 情绪理论指出，由于生物压力信号，我们会感受到情绪。
For example, if a dog barks loudly at us, our heart rate increases, we begin to perspire, our breathing increases, and because of these biological stress signals, we then feel a fearful emotion.
例如，如果一只狗对我们大声吠叫，我们的心率会增加，我们开始出汗，呼吸也会增加，并且由于这些生物压力信号，我们会感到恐惧。
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: The biological changes and cognitive awareness of the emotional state occur simultaneously.
Cannon-Bard 情绪理论：情绪状态的生物学变化和认知意识同时发生。
The thalamus is said to be responsible for both biological changes and cognitive awareness of emotions. After receiving information from environment, it sends signals to our neocortex and autonomic nervous system.
据说丘脑负责生物变化和情绪的认知意识。在接收到来自环境的信息后，它会向我们的新皮质和自主神经系统发送信号。
Stanley Schachter's Two Factor Theory: Schachter showed that people already physiologically excited, experience more intense emotions than people who are not already physiologically excited after both groups are exposed to the same stimulus.
斯坦利沙赫特的双因素理论：沙赫特表明，在两组都暴露于相同的刺激后，人们已经生理上兴奋，比生理上尚未兴奋的人经历更强烈的情绪。
Example, more excited after a quick jog…
例如，快速慢跑后更兴奋……
Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion: Researchers established that people from different cultures are able to label six facial expressions accurately.
情感的非语言表达：研究人员确定，来自不同文化背景的人能够准确地标记六种面部表情。
How do you measure stress?
你如何衡量压力？
Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale to measure using life-changing units.
Thomas Holmes 和 Richard Rahe 开发了社会重新调整评定量表，以使用改变生活的单位进行测量。
A person who scores very high on the SSRS is more likely to have stress-related diseases than a person with a low score.
在 SSRS 上得分很高的人比得分低的人更容易患上与压力有关的疾病。
Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Hans Seyle 的一般适应综合征 (GAS)
GAS is our biological response to many different physical and emotional stressors. The response is very consistent.
GAS 是我们对许多不同的身体和情绪压力源的生物反应。反应非常一致。
It has three phases: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion
它分为三个阶段：警报、抵抗、耗尽
Alarm reaction: Heart rate increases, blood is diverted from other body functions to muscles needed to react. The organism readies itself to meet the challenge through activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
警报反应：心率增加，血液从其他身体功能转移到需要反应的肌肉。有机体通过激活交感神经系统准备好迎接挑战。
Resistance: The body remains physiologically ready. Hormones, such as cortisol, are released to maintain this state of readiness. If the resistance stage last too long, the body will deplete its resources.
抵抗力：身体保持生理准备。释放激素，如皮质醇，以维持这种准备状态。如果抵抗阶段持续太久，身体就会耗尽它的资源。
Exhaustion: The parasympathetic nervous system returns our physiological state to normal. We can become more vulnerable to disease in this stage especially if our resources are depleted.
疲惫：副交感神经系统使我们的生理状态恢复正常。在这个阶段，我们可能更容易感染疾病，尤其是在我们的资源枯竭的情况下。
Seyle's model explains some of the documented problems associated with extended periods of stress.
Seyle 的模型解释了一些记录在案的与长期压力相关的问题。
Excessive stress can contribute to both physical diseases such as some forms of ulcers and heart conditions, and emotion difficulties.
过度的压力会导致身体疾病，例如某些形式的溃疡和心脏病，以及情绪困难。
Perceived lack of control over events exacerbates the harmful effects of stress.
感觉缺乏对事件的控制会加剧压力的有害影响。
Rats given control over the duration of electric shocks are less likely to get ulcers than rats without such control.
对电击持续时间进行控制的大鼠比没有这种控制的大鼠不太可能患溃疡。
Control over events tends to lessen stress, while a perceived lack of control generally makes the event more stressful.
对事件的控制往往会减轻压力，而感知的缺乏控制通常会使事件更加紧张。
心理学卷·其之玖·發展之學
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发展心理学是关于行为和思想如何在一生中发生变化的。
As you will see, developmental psychology involves some concepts covered in other chapters.
正如您将看到的，“发展心理学”涉及其他章节中涵盖的一些概念。
Nature vs. Nurture
The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which behaviors are a product of either inherited (i.e., genetic) or acquired (i.e., learned) influences.
先天与后天的争论涉及行为在多大程度上是遗传（即遗传）或后天（即习得）影响的产物。
This chapter begins by discussing influences from nature, and then moves into theories about nurture.
本章首先讨论自然的影响，然后进入关于养育的理论。
What research designs do developmental psychologists use?
发展心理学家使用哪些研究设计？
Cross-sectional & Longitudinal Research
横断面研究和纵向研究
Cross-sectional research uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the life span.
横断面研究使用不同年龄的参与者来比较某些变量在一生中可能如何变化。
A developmental researcher might be interested in how memory changes as we age.
发育……发展心理学研究人员可能对随着年龄的增长记忆如何变化感兴趣。
A cross-sectional research design may choose from different age groups of 10-19, 20-29, 30-39, etc. for the study.
横断面研究设计可以从 10-19、20-29、30-39 等不同年龄组中进行选择。
Cross sectional research is criticized for effects of historical events and cultural trends.
横断面研究因历史事件和文化趋势的影响而受到批评。
An example is that school memorization may not have been tested as much in one person's lifetime compared to another.
一个例子是，与另一个人相比，在一个人的一生中，学校记忆力的测试可能没有那么多。
Longitudinal research takes place over a long period of time with the same individuals. Individuals are tested on some variable after a defined length of time (e.g., every five years). Problems with longitudinal research are cost and tracking/accounting.
纵向研究是在很长一段时间内对同一个人进行的。在定义的时间长度后（例如，每五年）对个人进行一些变量的测试。纵向研究的问题是成本和跟踪/会计。
Our genes determine some of the abilities and traits we are born (e.g., hair and eye color, height). They could also determine some personality traits, but more research must be done.
我们的基因决定了我们与生俱来的一些能力和特征（例如，头发和眼睛的颜色、身高）。他们还可以确定一些人格特征，但必须做更多的研究。
Our prenatal (during pregnancy) environment is very important in our development.
我们的产前（怀孕期间）环境对我们的发育非常重要。
Teratogens are certain chemicals that can cause harm if ingested or contracted by the mother.
致畸剂是某些化学物质，如果被母亲摄入或感染，可能会造成伤害。
The placenta, a temporary organ, can filter out many harmful substances, but teratogens pass through this barrier and affect the fetus.
胎盘是一个临时器官，可以过滤掉很多有害物质，但致畸物质会穿过这个屏障，影响胎儿。
关于“胎盘”的网络图片可能会引起您的不适（涉及人体解剖云云，反正少不了一堆血），非必要请勿搜索。
Alcohol is a teratogen. A very harmful one. Even small amounts of alcohol can change the way the fetal brain develops.
酒精是一种致畸剂。一个非常有害的。即使是少量的酒精也会改变胎儿大脑的发育方式。
Children whose mothers' drink heavily or even moderately are likely to develop fetal alcohol syndrome. Children born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) have small, malformed skulls and developmental disabilities.
母亲大量饮酒甚至适度饮酒的孩子很可能患上胎儿酒精综合症。出生时患有胎儿酒精综合症 (FAS) 的儿童有小而畸形的头骨和发育障碍。
Fetal alcohol effect: Children born with fetal alcohol effect do not show all the signs of FAS, but many have developmental problems.
胎儿酒精效应：出生时有胎儿酒精效应的儿童并没有表现出 FAS 的所有迹象，但许多儿童有发育问题。
Other psychoactive drugs can harm newborns.
其他精神活性药物会伤害新生儿。
Infants can be born addicted to a psychoactive drug if the mother was a heavy user during pregnancy.
如果母亲在怀孕期间大量使用精神药物，婴儿可能会在出生时对精神药物上瘾。
Since the withdrawal symptoms can kill the infant, infants sometimes have to be put on a morphine drip to slowing wean them off substances they have absorbed through the placenta.
由于戒断症状会杀死婴儿，因此有时必须给婴儿滴吗啡，以减缓他们从胎盘吸收的物质的断奶。
Infant Development
婴儿发育
All babies exhibit a set of specific reflexes which are inborn, automatic processes to certain stimuli.
所有婴儿都表现出一组特定的反射，这些反射是天生的，对某些刺激的自动过程。
They are rooting, sucking, grasping (Palmer reflex), Moro, and Babinski.
它们是生根、吸吮、抓握（帕尔默反射）、莫罗和巴宾斯基。
Rooting reflex: When touched on the cheek, a baby will turn their head and attempt to put the object in its mouth.
生根反射：当触摸脸颊时，婴儿会转过头并试图将物体放入嘴里。
Sucking reflex: The baby with suckle things put in its mouth.
吸吮反射：宝宝嘴里放着吸吮的东西。
Grasping (Palmer) reflex: If an object is placed into a baby’s palm, it will curl its fingers to grasp the object.
抓握（Palmer）反射：如果将物体放在婴儿的手掌中，它会弯曲手指以抓住物体。
Moro reflex: When startled, a baby will fling his or her limbs out and then quickly retract them, making himself or herself as small as possible.
摩洛反射：当婴儿受到惊吓时，四肢会向外张开，然后迅速缩回，使自己尽可能小。
Banbinski reflex: When a baby’s foot is stroked, he or she will spread her big toe.
班宾斯基反射：当婴儿的脚被抚摸时，他或她会张开大脚趾。
Babies enjoy sugar when they're born; other tastes develop with maturity.
婴儿出生时就喜欢吃糖；其他口味随着成熟而发展。
Babies are born with very bad eye sight; they can only see 8-12 inches in front of them.
婴儿出生时视力很差；他们只能看到他们面前的8-12英寸。
Vision improves with age.
视力随着年龄的增长而提高。
Babies have a preference for faces and face-like objects; they are drawn to their mother’s face or close guardian.
婴儿对脸和类似脸的物体有偏好；他们被母亲或亲密的监护人的脸所吸引。
Babies can hear even before birth, in the womb.
婴儿甚至可以在出生前，在子宫内听到。
Motor development
运动开发
Our motor control develops as neurons in our brain connect with one another and become myelinated.
我们的运动控制随着我们大脑中的神经元相互连接并形成有髓鞘而发展。
Babies, on average, can roll over when the are 5.5 months, stand at about 8-9 months, and walk by about 15 months. However, any individual may be quicker or slower in development.
平均而言，婴儿在 5.5 个月大时可以翻身，大约 8-9 个月大时可以站立，大约 15 个月大时可以走路。但是，任何人的发展都可能更快或更慢。
Attachment & Parenting (Style)
依恋与育儿（风格）
Konrad Lorenz established that some infant animals become attached to individuals or even objects they see during a critical period after birth.
康拉德·洛伦兹（Konrad Lorenz）确定，一些婴儿动物在出生后的关键时期会依附于他们看到的个体甚至物体。
Imprinting is when a newborn creature bonds to the type of animals it meets at birth and begins to model its behavior after them.
印记是指新生生物与出生时遇到的动物类型结合并开始模仿它们的行为。
Harry Harlow raised baby monkeys with two artificial wire frame figures made to resemble mother monkeys.
Harry Harlow 用两个模仿母猴的人造线框人物养育了小猴子。
One mother figure was fitted with a bottle the infant could eat from, and the other was wrapped in a soft material.
一个母亲身上装有一个婴儿可以吃的瓶子，另一个则用柔软的材料包裹着。
Harlow found that infant monkeys, when frightened, preferred the soft mother figure even over the figure that they fed from.
哈洛发现，幼猴在受到惊吓时，更喜欢柔软的母亲形象，甚至超过了它们喂食的形象。
Harlow's studies demonstrate the importance of physical comfort in the formation of attachment with parents.
Harlow 的研究证明了身体舒适对与父母形成依恋关系的重要性。
Harlow also noticed that monkeys raised by wire mothers became more stressed and frightened than monkeys raised with real mothers when put into new situations.
哈洛还注意到，由铁丝妈妈抚养的猴子在进入新环境时会比由真正的妈妈抚养的猴子更加紧张和害怕。
Mary Ainsworth: She put children into novel situations and observed their behavior when the parents left. She then categorized each child’s reaction.
Mary Ainsworth：她将孩子们置于新奇的情境中，并在父母离开时观察他们的行为。然后她对每个孩子的反应进行分类。
She describes three attachment styles: Secure attachment, Avoidant attachment, Anxious/Ambivalent.
她描述了三种依恋风格：安全依恋、回避依恋、焦虑/矛盾。
Secure attachment (66 percent of population): Child confidently explores the novel environment while the parents are present, is distressed when they leave, and goes to the parents when they return.
安全依恋（66% 的人口）：当父母在场时，孩子自信地探索新环境，离开时感到痛苦，并在父母回来时去找父母。
Avoidant attachment (21 percent of the population): Child may resist being held by the parents and will explore the novel environment. He or she does not go to the parents for comfort when they return after the absence.
回避型依恋（占人口的 21%）：孩子可能会抗拒被父母抱起，并会探索新的环境。当他们离开后返回时，他或她不会去找父母寻求安慰。
Anxious/ambivalent attachment (12 percent of population): Child has ambivalent reactions to their parents. They may show extreme stress when the parents leave, but resist being comforted by them when they return.
焦虑/矛盾的依恋（占人口的 12%）：孩子对父母有矛盾的反应。当父母离开时，他们可能会表现出极大的压力，但当他们回来时，他们会拒绝接受他们的安慰。
Disorganized (not in Barron’s book): The child has an erratic relationship with the caretaker and with older adults.
杂乱无章（巴伦的书中没有）：孩子与看护人和老年人的关系不稳定。
This attachment style is more common is severe cases of neglect or abuse.
这种依恋风格更常见的是严重的忽视或虐待情况。
Diana Baumrind: She researched parent-child interactions and described three overall categories of parenting styles: Permissive parenting, Authoritarian parenting, Authoritative parenting.
戴安娜·鲍姆林德（Diana Baumrind）：她研究了亲子互动，并描述了三种总体的养育方式：宽容养育、威权养育、权威养育。
Permissive: Parents do not set clear guidelines for children. The rules that do exist in the family are constantly changed or are not enforced.
放任：父母没有为孩子制定明确的指导方针。家庭中确实存在的规则不断改变或不执行。
Authoritarian: Parents set strict standards for behavior and apply punishments for violations of the rules. Punishment for undesired behaviour is more often used than reinforcement for desired behavior.
威权主义：父母为行为制定严格的标准，并对违反规则的行为进行惩罚。对不良行为的惩罚比对期望行为的强化更常用。
Authoritative: Parents have set, consistent standards for behavior and the standards are reasonable and explained. Authoritative parents praise as often as they punish. Explanations are encouraged in an authoritative house, and the rules are reasonable and consistent.
权威：父母已经制定了一致的行为标准，并且标准是合理和解释的。权威的父母经常表扬和惩罚。鼓励权威机构解释，规则合理一致。
Other findings of Diana Baumrind's research:
戴安娜鲍姆林德研究的其他发现：
Children from authoritative homes are more socially capable and perform better than the academic average.
来自权威家庭的孩子比学术平均水平更具社交能力，表现更好。
Children of permissive parents are more likely to have emotional control problems and are more dependent.
宽容父母的孩子更容易出现情绪控制问题，并且更依赖他人。
Authoritarian parents' children are more likely to distrust others and be withdrawn from peers.
专制父母的孩子更有可能不信任他人并远离同龄人。
Do we develop continually, at a steady rate from birth to death or is our development discontinuous (discontinuous meaning development starts and stops and may cease completely).
我们是从出生到死亡以稳定的速度持续发展还是我们的发展是不连续的（不连续意味着发展开始和停止并可能完全停止）。
Stage Theories of Development: Continuity vs. Discontinuity
发展阶段论：连续性与不连续性
Stage Theories: Lev Vygotsky
舞台理论：列夫·维果茨基
Lev Vygotsky's concept of zone of proximal development is the range of tasks a child can perform independently and those tasks that the child needs assistance with.
列夫·维果茨基的最近发展区概念是儿童可以独立完成的任务范围以及儿童需要帮助的任务范围。
Actual development is the range of tasks the child can perform now, and potential development is the ability the child could attain.
实际发展是孩子现在可以完成的任务范围，潜在发展是孩子可以达到的能力。
Teachers/parents can provide “scaffolds” for students to help them accomplish tasks at the upper end of their ‘zone of proximal development’, encouraging further independence and cognitive development.
教师/家长可以为学生提供“脚手架”，帮助他们完成“最近发展区”上端的任务，鼓励他们进一步独立和认知发展。
Stage Theories: Sigmund Freud
舞台理论：西格蒙德弗洛伊德
Developed Psychosexual stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
发展的性心理阶段：口腔、肛门、♯♯、潜伏期和生殖器。
Each one of these stages has a conflict we must resolve.
这些阶段中的每一个都有我们必须解决的冲突。
If we fail to resolve a significant conflict during one of these stages, Freud said we could become fixated in the stage, meaning we might remain preoccupied with the behaviors associated with that stage.
如果我们无法在其中一个阶段解决重大冲突，弗洛伊德说我们可能会在这个阶段变得固执，这意味着我们可能会全神贯注于与该阶段相关的行为。
Oral Stage (0 to 1 year): In this stage, infants seek pleasure through their mouths. They tend to put everything they can grab into their mouths. Freud thought that people fixated at this stage might overeat, bite their nails, smoke, and have a childlike dependence on things.
口腔阶段（0 至 1 岁）：在这个阶段，婴儿通过嘴巴寻求快乐。他们倾向于把所有能抓到的东西都放进嘴里。弗洛伊德认为，处于这个阶段的人可能会暴饮暴食、咬指甲、抽烟，对事物产生孩子般的依赖。
Anal stage (1-3 years): This stage takes place during toilet training. If conflict around toilet training arises, a person might fixate and be overly controlling and orderly (retentive) or out of control and messy (expulsive).
肛门阶段（1-3 岁）：这个阶段发生在如厕训练期间。如果出现如厕训练方面的冲突，一个人可能会固执己见，过度控制和秩序井然（固执）或失控和凌乱（排斥）。
Phallic stage (3-5 years): During this stage, the child realizes their gender and this causes conflict in the family. Freud described the process boys go though as the Oedipus complex: A time when a boy resents his father’s relationship with his mother. The process for girls is called the Electra complex: This is when a girl resents her mother's relationship with her father. Not resolving this gender conflict leads to gender confusion and sexual deviancy.
♯♯阶段（3-5 岁）：在这个阶段，孩子意识到自己的性别，这会导致家庭冲突。弗洛伊德将男孩经历的过程描述为俄狄浦斯情结：一个男孩怨恨父亲与母亲的关系的时期。女孩的过程被称为伊莱克特拉情结：这是一个女孩憎恨母亲与父亲的关系的时候。不解决这种性别冲突会导致性别混乱和性偏差。
Latency stage (5-6 years): Freud thought children go through a short latency stage, or period of calm, and between the ages of six and puberty experience low psychosexual anxiety.
潜伏期（5-6 岁）：弗洛伊德认为儿童会经历一个短暂的潜伏期或平静期，并且在 6 岁至青春期之间经历较低的性心理焦虑。
Genital stage (puberty to adulthood): A child enters the genital stage where they remain for the rest of their lives. The focus of sexual pleasure is the genitals, and the fixation in this stage is what Freud considers normal: A long-lasting heterosexual relationship.
生殖器阶段（青春期到成年）：孩子进入生殖器阶段，他们将在此度过余生。性快感的焦点是生殖器，而这个阶段的固着是弗洛伊德认为正常的：一段长久的异性恋关系。
Stage Theories: Erik Erikson
舞台理论：埃里克·埃里克森
Erikson is labelled a neo-Freudian because he adapted Freud's theories to fit his own thoughts and observations.
埃里克森被贴上了新弗洛伊德主义者的标签，因为他改编了弗洛伊德的理论以适应他自己的思想和观察。
He adapted Freud's ideas and created the Psychosocial Stage Theory.
他采纳了弗洛伊德的思想并创造了心理社会阶段理论。
Infancy (birth to 18 months): Child develops sense of trust when caregivers provide reliable care; a lack of care leads to mistrust.
婴儿期（出生至 18 个月）：当看护者提供可靠的护理时，孩子会产生信任感；缺乏照顾会导致不信任。
Early childhood (2-3 years): Child needs to develop personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence; success means a feeling of autonomy, failure means feelings of shame and doubt.
幼儿期（2-3 岁）：孩子需要培养对身体技能的个人控制和独立感；成功意味着自主的感觉，失败意味着羞耻和怀疑的感觉。
Preschool (3-5 years): Child needs to assert control and power over environment; success leads to a sense of purpose; children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in guilt.
学前班（3-5岁）：孩子需要对环境进行控制和控制；成功带来目标感；试图施加过多权力的孩子会遭到反对，从而导致内疚。
School age (6-11years): Child needs to cope with new social and academic demands; success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
学龄（6-11岁）：孩子需要应对新的社会和学业需求；成功导致能力感，而失败导致自卑感。
Adolescence (12-18 years): Teen needs to develop a sense of self and personal identity; success leads to an ability to stay true to oneself; failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
青春期（12-18 岁）：青少年需要培养自我意识和个人认同感；成功带来忠于自己的能力；失败会导致角色混乱和自我意识薄弱。
Young adulthood (19-40 years): Young adult needs to form intimate, loving relationships with other people; success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
青壮年（19-40 岁）：青壮年需要与他人建立亲密、充满爱的关系；成功导致牢固的关系，而失败导致孤独和孤立。
Middle adulthood (40-65 years): Adult needs to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often through children or creating lasting positive change through career/work; success leads to feelings of usefulness, failure results in shallow involvement and feelings of stagnation.
中年（40-65 岁）：成年人需要创造或培养比他们更长寿的东西，通常是通过孩子或通过职业/工作创造持久的积极变化；成功导致有用的感觉，失败导致肤浅的参与和停滞的感觉。
Maturity (65-death): Older adult needs to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment; success means feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
成熟（65-死亡）：老年人需要回顾生活并感到满足感；成功意味着智慧的感觉，而失败则导致遗憾、痛苦和绝望。
Stage Theories: Jean Piaget & Cognitive Development
阶段理论：让·皮亚杰与认知发展
Jean Piaget was working alongside Alfred Binet, the creator of the IQ test, when he began developing his own theories on cognitive development.
当让·皮亚杰开始发展自己的认知发展理论时，他与智商测试的创造者阿尔弗雷德·比奈一起工作。
Schemata: A schemata or schema is a cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information. For example, a young child may first develop a schema for a horse. She knows that a horse is large, has hair, four legs, and a tail.
图式：图式或图式是帮助组织和解释信息的认知框架。例如，一个年幼的孩子可能首先为一匹马开发一个图式。她知道马很大，有毛，有四条腿，还有一条尾巴。
Assimilation: The ability to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge.
同化：将新知识融入现有知识的能力。
For example, a two year old’s schema of a tree is “green and big with bark.” Over time the child adds information: some trees lose their leaves, some trees have red leaves, etc.. More information is added to the schema for tree as more experience and information are gained.
例如，一个两岁的树的图式是“又绿又大，有树皮”。随着时间的推移，孩子会添加信息：一些树失去叶子，一些树有红叶等。随着获得更多经验和信息，更多信息被添加到树的模式中。
Accommodation: When new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas.
适应：当新信息或经验导致您修改现有模式时。
For example, a child develops a schema for a cat, but mistakenly calls a furry, four-legged animal with ears a cat when it is a dog.
例如，一个孩子形成了一只猫的图式，但当它是一只狗时，却错误地将一只毛茸茸的、有耳朵的四足动物称为猫。
Criticisms of Piaget
皮亚杰的批评
Many children go through the stages faster and enter them earlier than Piaget theorized.
许多孩子比皮亚杰的理论更快地经历和进入这些阶段。
Some believe his tests relied too heavily on language, biasing the results for older children.
一些人认为他的测试过于依赖语言，结果偏向于年龄较大的孩子。
An alternative to Piaget's theory
皮亚杰理论的替代方案
Information processing model states that our abilities to memorize, interpret, and perceive gradually develops as we age, rather than occurs in distinct stages; the process is continuous.
信息处理模型指出，我们的记忆、解释和感知能力随着年龄的增长而逐渐发展，而不是发生在不同的阶段； 这个过程是连续的。
Theory of mind is a cognitive ability that develops in children around the age of four.
心智理论是一种认知能力，在四岁左右的儿童中发展。
TOM is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc.—to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.
TOM（心智理论）是将心理状态（信念、意图、愿望、情感、知识等）归因于自己和他人的能力，并能够理解他人有与自己不同的信念、愿望、意图和观点。
Psychologists use the "false belief task" to test the TOM.
心理学家使用“错误信念任务”来测试 TOM。
When does our sense of right and wrong develop?
我们的是非感是什么时候产生的？
Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
劳伦斯科尔伯格的道德发展阶段
Kohlberg’s Stages: Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-conventional.
科尔伯格的阶段：前常规、常规、后常规。
Pre-conventional: Most common in children. Individuals focus on direct consequences of actions for themselves. An action is perceived as wrong because the person is punished or good because the person is rewarded.
前常规：最常见于儿童。个人关注行为对自己的直接后果。一个行为被认为是错误的，因为这个人受到了惩罚，或者被认为是好的，因为这个人得到了奖励。
Examples of pre-conventional
前常规的例子
Parent: Can you clean your room?
家长：你能打扫你的房间吗？
Child: Not now.
孩子：现在不行。
Parent: I will buy you ice cream at the mall.
家长：我去商场给你买冰淇淋。
Child: Okay!
孩子：好的！
Child: Cleaning my room is good because I get an ice cream.
孩子：打扫房间很好，因为我有冰淇淋。
Child2: I better put up my hand and ask to go to the washroom, if I don’t and I just leave, I might be in trouble!
孩子2：我最好（向老师）举手要求去洗手间，不然我不报告就走了，我可能就会有麻烦了！
Conventional: Most common in adolescents. An action is considered right or wrong by comparing it to society’s views and expectations.
常规：最常见于青少年。通过将行为与社会的观点和期望进行比较来判断行为是对还是错。
Someone in the conventional stage might want to avoid littering, even if they know they will not get caught, because they've been taught that littering is wrong.
处于常规阶段的人可能希望避免乱扔垃圾，即使他们知道自己不会被抓住，因为他们被教导乱扔垃圾是错误的。
Post-conventional is a realization that individuals are separate from society, and the individual’s own perspective may override society’s expectation. Principles may be basic human rights, liberty, justice, and general welfare of the planet, animals, and humans.
后传统是认识到个人与社会是分离的，个人自己的观点可能会凌驾于社会的期望之上。原则可能是地球、动物和人类的基本人权、自由、正义和普遍福利。
The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. For example, protecting a life is more important than upholding laws regarding theft.
该人将准备采取行动捍卫这些原则，即使这意味着在此过程中与社会其他人背道而驰，并且必须承担不赞成和/或监禁的后果。例如，保护生命比维护有关盗窃的法律更重要。
Carol Gilligan challenged Kohlberg that boys and girls develop differently.
Carol Gilligan挑战Kohlberg男孩和女孩的发展方式不同。
According to Gilligan's research, boys have a more absolute view of what is moral while girls pay more attention to the situation.
根据Gilligan的研究，男孩对什么是道德有更绝对的看法，而女孩则更关注情况。
Boys might have moral rules that apply in every context, while girls might want to know more about the situation and the people involved.
男孩可能有适用于各种情况的道德规则，而女孩可能想更多地了解情况和所涉及的人。
But research does not support Gilligan's claims about gender differences in moral development.
但研究并不支持Gilligan关于道德发展中的性别差异的说法。
GENDER: Identifying with some socially defined norm, such as male or female. Gender does not usually refer to biological or physiological characteristics normally associated with ‘male’ or ‘female’.
性别：认同一些社会定义的规范，例如男性或女性。性别通常不是指通常与“男性”或“女性”相关的生物学或生理特征。
Children develop gender identity by age two or three. Developing sex-related roles, gender typing, occurs from ages two to seven.
儿童在两三岁时就形成了性别认同。发展与性别相关的角色，性别类型，发生在 2 到 7 岁。
Children begin to learn that gender is fixed, gender constancy, at roughly the same age.
孩子们在大致相同的年龄开始学习性别是固定的，性别恒定性。
Gender Development
性别发展
Gender differences vary widely between cultures. A behavior considered feminine in one culture, such as holding hands with a friend, might be considered gender neutral in another culture.
不同文化之间的性别差异差异很大。在一种文化中被认为是女性化的行为，例如与朋友牵手，在另一种文化中可能被认为是性别中立的。
Gender and Biology
性别与生物学
Biopsychological theories focus on the nature element of gender development (DNA, genes, proteins, neurotransmitters, hormones, brains, genitals).
生物心理学理论关注性别发展的自然因素（DNA、基因、蛋白质、神经递质、激素、大脑、生殖器）。
One of the differences is that women, on average, have larger corpus callosum (this is part of the brain that connects each hemisphere).
不同之处之一是女性平均拥有更大的胼胝体（这是连接每个半球的大脑的一部分）。
This difference may affect how the right and left hemispheres communicate and coordinate tasks, and therefore some of the differences between male and female behavior.
这种差异可能会影响左右半球交流和协调任务的方式，从而影响男性和女性行为之间的一些差异。
Freud views gender development as a competition. Young boys, unconsciously compete with their fathers' for their mothers' love. Girls compete with their mothers' for their fathers' love
弗洛伊德将性别发展视为一种竞争。年轻的男孩，不知不觉地与父亲争夺母亲的爱。女生为了爸爸的爱和妈妈竞争
Proper gender, development according to Freud, occurs when a child realizes that he or she cannot hope to beat their same-sex parent at this competition, and identifies with that sex.
根据弗洛伊德的说法，正确的性别发展发生在孩子意识到他或她无法希望在这场比赛中击败他们的同性父母并认同该性别时。
Social and cognitive psychologists concentrate on the effects of society and our own thoughts about gender have on our development
社会和认知心理学家专注于社会的影响以及我们自己对性别的看法对我们的发展的影响
For example, a social psychologist might observe that boys are more often encouraged in rough play than girls.
例如，一位社会心理学家可能会观察到男孩比女孩更容易在粗鲁的游戏中受到鼓励。
Cognitive psychologists focus on our internal interpretations that we make about the gender message we get from our environment when we’'re developing.
认知心理学家专注于我们对我们在发展过程中从环境中获得的性别信息所做的内部解释。
Gender-schema theory explains that we internalize messages about gender into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave.
性别模式理论解释说，我们将关于性别的信息内化为关于每个性别应该如何表现的认知规则。
If a girl sees that her little brother is encouraged to wrestle with their father, she creates a rule governing how boys should play.
如果一个女孩看到她的弟弟被鼓励与他们的父亲摔跤，她就会制定一条规则来管理男孩应该如何玩耍。
心理学卷·其之拾·人格之論
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人格是个体所具有的独特的态度、行为和情感的集合。
Some examples of personality theories that do not neatly fit into any other school of thought:
一些与其他任何学派都不完全吻合的人格理论的例子：
Type A and type B
A型和B型
Individuals with a type A personality tend to feel a sense of time pressure and are easily angered. They are also competitive and ambitious.
A型人格的人容易感到时间压力，容易生气。他们也很有竞争力和雄心勃勃。
Individuals with a type B personality tend to be more relaxed and easy going.
B型人格的人往往更轻松、随和。
Psychoanalytic Theory
精神分析理论
Psychoanalytic theory posits that personality is determined by early childhood experiences, and remains mostly the same throughout the life.
精神分析理论认为，人格是由儿童早期的经历决定的，并且在一生中基本保持不变。'
Dominant themes in psychoanalytic theory are sex, death, childhood, and the unconscious mind.
精神分析理论的主要主题是性、死亡、童年和潜意识。
Our conscious mind is all the current thoughts in your mind.
我们有意识的头脑是你头脑中所有当前的想法。
Preconscious is just below consciousness; it’s what you’re not thinking about, but could be thinking about if you focused on it.
前意识就在意识之下；这是您没有考虑的，但如果您专注于它，则可能会考虑。
Freud believed that a lot of people's behavior is controlled by a region of the mind he called the unconscious.
弗洛伊德认为，很多人的行为是由他称之为无意识的大脑区域控制的。
We do not have access to the thoughts in our unconscious.
我们无法接触到我们潜意识中的思想。
Freud said that we spend a tremendous amount of energy trying to keep threatening thoughts in our unconscious mind.
弗洛伊德说，我们花费了大量的精力试图在我们的潜意识中保留威胁性的想法。
Freud posited that there were two types of instincts: Eros, the life instinct, which is the desire for sex, and Thanatos, the death instinct, which is seen as aggression.
弗洛伊德假设有两种类型的本能：工口，生命本能，即对性的渴望，以及死亡本能，死亡本能，被视为侵略。
The Libido is the energy that directs the life instinct.
性欲是指导生命本能的能量。
Freud also posited the ego, superego, and ID.
弗洛伊德还提出了自我、超我和本我。
The ID is a part of the unconscious mind.
ID是潜意识的一部分。
The ID pursues immediate gratification. The ID exists from birth. It remains the same throughout a persons life and does not change with time or experience. The ID is not affected by reality, logic, or experience.
ID追求即时满足。 ID从出生就存在。它在一个人的一生中保持不变，不会随着时间或经验而改变。 ID不受现实、逻辑或经验的影响。
自我根据现实原则运作，经常妥协或推迟满足以避免社会的负面后果。
The ego operates according to the reality principle, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave. Ego develops within 2-3 years of age.
自我在决定如何表现时会考虑社会现实和规范、礼仪和规则。自我在 2-3 岁时发育。
The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral about right and wrong taught by parents and society. Emerges around age 3-5.
超我是人格的一个方面，它拥有我们所有关于父母和社会教导的对与错的内在道德。出现在 3-5 岁左右。
Example: As you cram for the AP psych exam, the ID tells you to go to sleep or go to the party (immediate gratification); the superego tells you to study because it is the right thing to do; the ego negotiates with both the ID and the superego, saying you will study for two hours, drop by the party, and then go to sleep.
示例：当你为 AP 心理考试做准备时，身份证告诉你去睡觉或去参加派对（立即满足）； 超我告诉你学习，因为这是正确的事； 自我与身份和超我协商，说你要学习两个小时，顺便去参加聚会，然后去睡觉。
There is little empirical support for a lot of Freud's ideas. Psychoanalytic theory is able to interpret both positive and negative reactions as support of the theory.
弗洛伊德的许多观点几乎没有经验支持。 精神分析理论能够将积极和消极的反应解释为该理论的支持。
For example, if someone denied psychoanalytic theory, saying it was nonsense, a psychoanalyst may say that person is undergoing denial because they cannot deal with the truth.
例如，如果有人否认精神分析理论，说这是胡说八道，精神分析学家可能会说这个人正在接受否认，因为他们无法处理真相。
精神分析的批评(Criticisms of Psychoanalysis)
Freud was also criticized for overestimating the importance of early childhood and sex in shaping behavior.
弗洛伊德还被批评高估了幼儿期和性在塑造行为方面的重要性。
Contemporary research contradicts the idea that personality is essentially set by the age of five.
当代研究与人格本质上由五岁确定的观点相矛盾。
Karen Horney and Nancy Chodorow criticized Freud's assumption that men were superior to women.
凯伦霍尼和南希乔多罗批评弗洛伊德关于男性优于女性的假设。
Horney and Chodorow suggested that if women were envious of men, it was more likely to be all the advantages men enjoyed in society.
霍尼和乔多罗认为，如果女性嫉妒男性，则更有可能是男性在社会中享有的所有优势。
Posited that men may suffer from womb envy; jealously of women's reproductive capabilities.
假设男人可能患有子宫嫉妒；嫉妒女性的生殖能力。
Freud's impact on culture still exists today, though his psychological theory does not hold up to empirical evidence.
弗洛伊德对文化的影响今天仍然存在，尽管他的心理学理论不支持经验证据。
Freud's terms like ego, unconscious, and denial are still widely used in everyday speech.
弗洛伊德的自我、无意识和否认等术语仍然广泛用于日常言语中。
荣格理论(Jungian Theory)
Neo-Freudian Theories/Psychodynamic theory(Carl Jung & Alfred Adler)
新弗洛伊德理论/心理动力学理论（Carl Jung & Alfred Adler）
Jung proposed that the unconscious consists of two different parts: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.
荣格提出无意识由两个不同的部分组成：个人无意识和集体无意识。
The personal unconscious, contained complexes, was the accumulation of experiences from a person's lifetime that could not be consciously recalled. It is similar to Freud's view of the unconscious.
包含情结的个人无意识是一个人一生中无法有意识地回忆的经验的积累。这与弗洛伊德的无意识观点相似。
A complex is a personal unconscious, core pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme.
情结是围绕一个共同主题组织起来的个人无意识的、核心的情感、记忆、感知和愿望模式。
According to Jung's personality theory, complexes are building blocks of the psyche and the source of all human emotions.
根据荣格的人格理论，情结是心灵的基石，也是人类所有情感的源泉。
The collective unconscious "does not develop individually but is inherited. It consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents."
集体无意识“不是单独发展的，而是遗传的。它由预先存在的形式、原型组成，它们只能成为次要的意识，并为某些心理内容赋予明确的形式。”
The collective unconscious is passed down through the species and explains certain similarities we see between cultures.
集体无意识通过物种传承下来，并解释了我们在文化之间看到的某些相似之处。
The collective unconscious contains archetypes that Jung defined as universal concepts we all share as part of the human species.
集体无意识包含了荣格定义为我们作为人类物种的一部分共享的普遍概念的原型。
The shadow is an archetype that represents the dark side of personality.
阴影是代表人格黑暗面的原型。
The persona is people's creation of a public image.
人格是人们对公众形象的创造。
There are a lot of other archetypes in Jungian theory: Creator, Caregiver, Ruler, Jester, Hero, Lover, Outlaw, Magician, Explorer, etc.
荣格理论中还有很多其他原型：创造者、看护者、统治者、小丑、英雄、情人、亡命之徒、魔术师、探险家等。
Each has a core desire. For example, the Hero's core desire is to prove one's worth through courageous and difficult action.
每个人都有一个核心愿望。例如，英雄的核心愿望是通过勇敢和艰难的行动来证明自己的价值。
阿德勒理论(Adlerian Theory)
Adler downplays the unconscious more than Freud, and believes people are motivated by the fear of failure, which he termed inferiority.
阿德勒比弗洛伊德更轻视无意识，并相信人们的动机是害怕失败，他称之为自卑。
They are also motivated by the desire to achieve: superiority.
他们也受到实现的愿望的驱使：优越感。
Adler also emphasizes the importance of birth order in shaping personality.
阿德勒还强调了出生顺序在塑造人格方面的重要性。
Adler argued that birth order can leave an impression on an individual's style of life, which is one's habitual way of dealing with the tasks of friendship, love, and work.
阿德勒认为，出生顺序可以给个人的生活方式留下印象，这是一个人处理友谊、爱情和工作任务的习惯方式。
Firstborns are dethroned when a second child comes along, and this loss of perceived privilege and primacy may have a lasting influence on them. Middle children may feel ignored or overlooked. Younger and only children may be pampered and spoiled, which was suggested to affect their later personalities.
当第二个孩子出现时，长子就会被废黜，这种特权和首要地位的丧失可能会对他们产生持久的影响。中间的孩子可能会感到被忽视或被忽视。年幼的独生子女可能会被宠坏，这被认为会影响他们后来的性格。
Trait theories posit that we can describe people's personalities by identifying general traits.
特质理论假设我们可以通过识别一般特质来描述人们的个性。
Nomothetic approach: Some trait theorists believe that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people's personalities.
Nomothetic 方法：一些特质理论家认为，相同的基本特质集可用于描述所有人的个性。
Hans Eyesnck believed that by classifying all people along an introversion-extraversion scale and a stable-unstable scale, we could describe their personality entirely.
Hans Eyesnck 认为，通过内向-外向和稳定-不稳定的量表对所有人进行分类，我们可以完整地描述他们的个性。
Raymond Cattell developed the 16 personality factor test to measure what he believed were the 16 basic traits present in all people.
Raymond Cattell 开发了 16 种人格因素测试来衡量他认为所有人都存在的 16 种基本特征。
outgoing, more intelegent, emotionally stable, dominant, happy-go-lucky, conscientious, venturesome, sensitive, suspicious, imaginative, shrewd, apprehensive, experimenting, self-sufficient, controlled, tensed.
外向的，更聪明的，情绪稳定的，占主导地位的，随遇而安的，认真的，冒险的，敏感的，多疑的，富有想象力的，精明的，忧虑的，实验的，自给自足的，控制的，紧张的。
正确的，直接的，中肯的，雅致的，客观的，完整的，立体的，全面的，辩证的，形而上学的，雅俗共赏的，一针见血的，直击要害的。
Paul Costa & Robert McCrae proposed that personality can be described using the Big Five Personality Traits: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness, and Emotional Stability (Neuroticism).
Paul Costa 和 Robert McCrae 提出可以使用大五人格特质来描述人格：外向性、随和性、责任心、开放性和情绪稳定性（神经质）。
Idiographic theories assert that using the same set of terms to classify all people is impossible.
个性化理论断言，使用同一组术语对所有人进行分类是不可能的。
Idiographic:Focus on the individual and recognition of uniqueness, Private, subjective, and conscious experiences, Investigations gain written information unique to individual under study
个性化：关注个体和对独特性的认识，私人的、主观的和有意识的体验，调查获得所研究个体独有的书面信息
Nomothetic:Attempts to establish laws and generalizations, Objective knowledge through scientific method, Investigations gain numerical data or data that can be categorized.
Nomothetic：试图建立规律和概括，通过科学方法获得客观知识，调查获得数字数据或可以分类的数据。
Gordon Allport suggested that to understand and predict behaviour, you need to look at a person's individual traits.
Gordon Allport 建议，要了解和预测行为，您需要查看一个人的个人特征。
Cardinal Trait: A trait that defines and dominates one’s personality and behaviour.
基本特质：定义和支配一个人的个性和行为的特质。
Central Traits: Refer to general characteristics that form the foundation of someone. These are characteristics by which you might describe a person. They might be honest, hard-working, and punctual.
中心特征：指构成某人基础的一般特征。这些是您可以用来描述一个人的特征。他们可能诚实、勤奋、守时。
Secondary Traits: These are traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences, and usually only appear in certain situations or under specific circumstances (e.g., panic attack during a public speech or anger while waiting in line).
次要特征：这些特征有时与态度或偏好有关，通常仅在某些情况或特定情况下出现（例如，公开演讲时的恐慌发作或排队等候时的愤怒）。
A person's cardinal trait could be sociability, because they're always socializing.
一个人的主要特征可以是社交能力，因为他们总是在社交。
人格生物学理论Biological Theories of Personality
History: Hippocrates, born 460 BCE, believed that personality was determined by the relative levels of four humors (fluids) in the body.
历史：出生于公元前 460 年的希波克拉底认为，人格是由体内四种体液（体液）的相对水平决定的。
The humors were blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.
体液是血、黄胆汁、黑胆汁和痰。
Someone was unhealthy when there was an imbalance of humors.
当体液不平衡时，人是不健康的。
Present: “‘’”Genes, neurotransmitters, hormones, and other physiological characteristics‘’‘’ determine how a person behaves.
现在的研究：基因、神经递质、激素和其他生理特征决定了一个人的行为方式。
Heritability: a statistic that estimates the degree of genetic variation.
遗传力：估计遗传变异程度的统计量。
Things like height, eye colour, skin colour, and hair colour are related to specific genes. These traits have a high heritability.
身高、眼睛颜色、肤色和头发颜色等都与特定基因有关。这些性状具有很高的遗传力。
An estimate for the heritability of intelligence is between 50-70%
智力的遗传力估计在 50-70% 之间
Evidence suggests that genes are involved in a person’s temperament.
有证据表明，基因与一个人的气质有关。
William Sheldon's Somatotype Theory: Sheldon identified three different body types and argued that certain personality traits were associated with each of the body types.
威廉谢尔顿的体型理论：谢尔顿确定了三种不同的体型，并认为某些人格特征与每种体型有关。
Endomorph: Relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful
内胚型：放松、善于交际、宽容、喜欢舒适、平和
Mesomorph: Active, assertive, vigorous, combative
中胚层：积极、自信、充满活力、好斗
Ectomorph: Quiet, fragile, restrained, non-assertive, sensitive
外胚层：安静、脆弱、克制、不自信、敏感
行为理论(Behavioral Theories)
Behaviorists argue that behavior is personality and that the way most people think of the term personality is meaningless.
行为主义者认为，行为就是人格，大多数人对人格一词的看法是没有意义的。
'Personality' is determined by the environment.
“个性”是由环境决定的。
The reinforcement contingencies to which one is exposed creates one's 'personality'.
一个人所暴露的强化偶然性创造了一个人的“个性”。
By changing a person’s environment, a behaviorist believes they can alter 'personality'.
通过改变一个人的环境，行为主义者相信他们可以改变“个性”。
Radical behaviorists, like B.F. Skinner, are criticized for failing to recognise the importance of cognition (thinking) in personality.
激进的行为主义者，如 B.F. Skinner，因未能认识到认知（思维）在人格中的重要性而受到批评。
社会认知理论(Social Cognitive Theories)
Albert Bandura (Bobo Doll Experiment) suggested that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person's behavior.
阿尔伯特班杜拉（波波娃娃实验）认为，人格是由人（特征）、环境和人的行为之间的相互作用创造的。
His model is based on the idea of triadic reciprocality known as reciprocal determinism.
他的模型基于被称为互惠决定论的三元互惠思想。
'互惠决定论示例(Reciprocal Determinism Example:')
“Taylor is friendly (trait)”
“泰勒很友好（特质）”
1. Influences her behavior: She talks a lot
1. 影响她的行为：她话很多
2. Influences her environment: She is more likely to go to parties where she will talk a lot
2. 影响她的环境：她更有可能去参加她会说很多话的聚会
3.Her environment influences her behavior: the more she talks, the more friendly she thinks she is, and the more parties she goes to, the more she talks…
3.她的环境影响她的行为：她说的越多，她认为她越友好，她参加的聚会越多，她说的越多……
Bandura also posited that personality is affected by people's self-efficacy.
班杜拉还假设人格受到人们的自我效能感的影响。
Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in his or her innate ability to achieve goals.
自我效能感是个人对自己实现目标的天生能力的信念。
People with a high self-efficacy are optimistic about their ability to get things done while people with low self-efficacy feel powerless.
自我效能高的人对自己完成工作的能力持乐观态度，而自我效能低的人则感到无能为力。
George Kelly proposed the personal-construct theory of personality.
乔治凯利提出了人格的个人建构理论。
Personal-construct theory argues that people, in their attempts to understand their world, develop their own, individual systems of personal constructs.
个人建构理论认为，人们在试图理解他们的世界时，会发展他们自己的个人建构系统。
Such constructs consist of pairs of opposites such as fair-unfair, smart-dumb, and exciting dull.
这种结构由成对的对立面组成，例如公平不公平、聪明愚蠢和令人兴奋的沉闷。
People then use these constructs to evaluate their worlds. Kelly believed that people's behavior is determined by how they interpret the world.
然后人们使用这些结构来评估他们的世界。凯利认为，人们的行为取决于他们对世界的解读方式。
His theory is based on a fundamental postulate that states that people's behavior is influenced by their cognitions and that by knowing how people have behaved in the past, we can predict how they will act in the future.
他的理论基于一个基本假设，即人们的行为受他们的认知影响，通过了解人们过去的行为，我们可以预测他们未来的行为。
Julian Rotter: Locus of Control (LoC).
朱利安·罗特：控制点 (LoC)。
A person can be described as having either an internal locus of control or an external locus of control.
一个人可以被描述为具有内部控制点或外部控制点。
People with an internal locus of control feel as if they are responsible for what happens to them.
具有内部控制点的人感觉好像他们对发生在他们身上的事情负责。
People with an external locus of control generally believe that luck and other forces outside of their own control determine their destinies.
具有外部控制点的人通常认为运气和其他不受自己控制的力量决定了他们的命运。
Positive outcomes have been associated with having an internal locus of control.
积极的结果与拥有内部控制点有关。
Compared with externals, internals tend to be healthier, more politically active, and do better in school.
与外在人相比，内在人往往更健康，政治上更活跃，在学校表现更好。
Humanistic theories of personality view people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through freewill.
人本主义人格理论认为人天生善良，能够通过自由意志决定自己的命运。
Humanistic theories focus on the importance of a person's self-concept and self-esteem.
人文主义理论关注一个人的自我概念和自尊的重要性。
Self-concept is made up of one's ideas, self-knowledge, and the social self to form the self as whole.
自我概念是由一个人的想法、自我知识和社会自我构成的整体。
It includes the past, present, and future selves, where future selves (or possible selves) represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid of becoming.
它包括过去、现在和未来的自我，未来的自我（或可能的自我）代表个人对他们可能成为什么、他们想成为什么或他们害怕成为什么的想法。
One's self-concept is related to their self-esteem.
一个人的自我概念与他们的自尊有关。
Self-esteem reflects an individual's overall subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth.
自尊反映了个人对自身价值的整体主观情感评价。
It is the decision made by an individual as an attitude towards the self.
它是个人作为对自我的态度而做出的决定。
Abraham Maslow & The Hierarchy of Needs
亚伯拉罕马斯洛与需求层次
Each individual's personality may be unique, but we all face the same set of needs.
每个人的个性可能是独一无二的，但我们都面临着相同的需求。
Self-actualization is reaching your full potential as a person.
自我实现正在发挥你作为一个人的全部潜力。
Assessment Tests help identify individual differences in personality.
评估测试有助于识别个性的个体差异。
Projective tests are often used by psychoanalysts.
投射测试经常被精神分析学家使用。
They involved asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli.
'他们要求人们解释模棱两可的刺激。“”
Rorschach inkblot tests involve showing people a series of inkbots
罗夏墨迹测试包括向人们展示一系列墨水机器人
墨水点点.jpg
Thematic Apperception Test is a projective psychological test.
主题统觉测试是一种投射性心理测试。
Proponents of the technique assert that subjects' responses, in the narratives they make up about ambiguous pictures of people, reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world.
该技术的支持者声称，受试者的反应，在他们对人物模棱两可的照片的叙述中，揭示了他们潜在的动机、担忧和他们看待社会世界的方式。
Psychoanalysts believe that people's interpretations reflect their unconscious thoughts.
精神分析学家认为，人们的解释反映了他们无意识的想法。
In scoring projective tests, an analyst must take in the description the participant gives, but must watch how the person holds the card or picture, the way they turn it, and the way they focus on it.
在给投射测试打分时，分析师必须接受参与者给出的描述，但必须观察这个人是如何拿着卡片或图片的，他们转动卡片的方式，以及他们专注于它的方式。
Many believe that projective tests are unreliable.
许多人认为投射测试是不可靠的。
Self-report Inventories are questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves.
自我报告清单是要求人们提供有关自己的信息的问卷。
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-1/2/3/etc.)
明尼苏达多相人格量表 (MMPI-1/2/3/etc.)
567 true/false questions.
567个对/错问题。
18 years and older.
18 岁及以上。
Takes 60/90 minutes to complete.
需要 60/90 分钟以完成。
10 clinical scales that assess dimensions of personality.
评估人格维度的 10 个临床量表。
Has 9 validity scales to detect response styles.
有 9 个有效性量表来检测响应风格。
Barnum Effect: People have he tendency to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality.
巴纳姆效应：人们倾向于以模糊的、普通的个性描述来看待自己。
心理学卷·其之拾壹·測驗之差
| 心理学卷·其之拾壹 |
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你 的 智 商 在 几 层 ？
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心理学卷·其之拾贰·變態之境
！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！
异常心理学是对患有心理疾病的人的研究。
Abnormal psychology studies depression, substance abuse, learning difficulties, mental disorders, and more.
异常心理学研究抑郁症、药物滥用、学习困难、精神障碍等。
a) The behavior is maladaptive/disturbing to the individual.
a) 行为对个人不适应/令人不安。
b) The behavior is disturbing to others.
b) 该行为令他人不安。
c) The behavior is not shared by many members of society.
c) 许多社会成员不认同这种行为。
d) It is irrational; the behavior does not make sense to the average person.
d) 不合理；这种行为对普通人没有意义。
Insanity is a legal term, not a psychological one.
精神错乱是一个法律术语，而不是心理术语。
If one is found to be insane, the person cannot be held fully responsible for their actions.
如果发现某人精神错乱，则该人不能对其行为承担全部责任。
This may be because they had a psychological disorder which impaired their judgement.
这可能是因为他们有心理障碍，损害了他们的判断力。
Psychologists use a book called the Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders (DSM).
心理学家使用一本名为《精神疾病诊断和统计手册》（DSM）的书。
It provides a way for psychologists to diagnose patients.
它为心理学家诊断病人提供了一种方法。
It is revised every so often, currently on its 5th edition.
它经常被修改，目前是第 5 版。
Disorders are reclassified every so often.
疾病经常被重新分类。
Homosexuality was reclassified in some previous edition.
在以前的一些版本中，同性恋被重新分类。
000-x63 Sexual deviation
000-x63 性偏差
This diagnosis is reserved for deviant sexuality which is not symptomatic of more extensive syndromes, such as schizophrenic and obsessional reactions.
这种诊断是为不正常的性行为保留的，这种性行为不是更广泛的综合征的症状，例如精神分裂症和强迫反应。
The term includes most of the casesformally classed as "Psychopathic personality with pathologic sexuality." The diagnosis will specify the type of pathologic behavior, such as homosexuality, transvestism, pedophilia, fetishism and sexual sadism (including rape, sexual assault, mutilation).
该术语包括大多数被正式归类为“具有病态性行为的精神病态人格”的案例。诊断将指定病理行为的类型，例如同性恋、易装癖、恋童癖、恋物癖和♯♯待（包括强奸、性侵犯、肢解）。
Psychological School/Perspective+Etiology/Cause of the Disorder
心理学派/观点+病因/疾病的原因
Psychology Analytic/dynamic: Internal, unconscious drives
心理学分析/动态：内在的、无意识的驱动力
Humanistic: Failure to strive to one's potential or being in touch with one's feelings
人文主义：未能发挥自己的潜力或与自己的感情保持联系
Behavioral: Reinforcement history, environment
行为：强化历史、环境
Cognitive: Irrational, dysfunctional thoughts or ways of thinking
认知：非理性、功能失调的想法或思维方式
Biomedical/Neuroscience: Organic problems, biomedical imbalances, genetic predispositions
生物医学/神经科学：器质性问题、生物医学失衡、遗传易感性
Phobia is an intense unwarranted fear of a situation or object.
恐惧症是对某种情况或物体的强烈无端恐惧。
Such as claustrophobia, fear of enclosed spaces, or arachnophobia, fear of spiders.
例如幽闭恐惧症，对封闭空间的恐惧，或蜘蛛恐惧症，对蜘蛛的恐惧。
Agoraphobia is a fear of open, public spaces. People with extreme agoraphobia may not venture outside their home.
广场恐惧症是对开放的公共场所的恐惧。患有极端广场恐惧症的人可能不会冒险走出家门。
Social anxiety disorder is a fear of a situation in which one could embarrass oneself in public such as when eating or walking.
社交焦虑症是一种害怕在公共场合（例如吃饭或走路时）让自己难堪的情况。
Generalized Anxiety Disorders (GAD) is when someone experiences a constant, low-level anxiety.
广泛性焦虑症 (GAD) 是指某人经历持续的低水平焦虑。
Panic disorder is when someone suffers from acute episodes of intense anxiety without any justifiable cause.
恐慌症是指某人在没有任何正当原因的情况下急性发作强烈的焦虑。
Psychoanalytic theorists see anxiety as the result of conflicts among the desires of the ID, ego, and superego.
精神分析理论家将焦虑视为本我、自我和超我的欲望之间冲突的结果。
Anxiety may arise when a woman wants to pursue her father (ID) while being restrained by the superego.
当一个女人想要追求她的父亲（ID）同时受到超我的约束时，可能会出现焦虑。
Behaviorists assume all behaviors are learned and that phobias, like arachnophobia, arise out of reinforcement. Maybe you were bit by a spider, now you’re scared of spiders.
行为主义者假设所有行为都是后天习得的，恐惧症，如蜘蛛恐惧症，是由强化引起的。也许你被蜘蛛咬了，现在你害怕蜘蛛。
A cognitive theorist would say that anxiety results from dysfunctional ways of thinking; anxiety may result from an unrealistic expectation you have of yourself.
认知理论家会说焦虑是由于思维方式功能失调造成的。焦虑可能源于你对自己的不切实际的期望。
"I will get 100% on the AP psych exam" or "If I don't get 100%, my life will be ruined forever!"
“我将在 AP 心理考试中获得 100%”或“如果我没有获得 100%，我的生活将永远被毁掉！”
Somatoform disorders occur when a person 'manifests' psychological problems through a physiological symptom.
当一个人通过生理症状“表现”出心理问题时，就会发生躯体形式障碍。
Somatoform disorder is an umbrella term for the conversion disorder.
躯体形式障碍是转换障碍的总称。
Conversion disorder: People report the existence of a severe physical problem such as paralysis or blindness, and will be unable to move their arms and legs.
转换障碍：人们报告存在严重的身体问题，例如瘫痪或失明，并且无法移动他们的手臂和腿。
However no biological explanation is found by medical professionals.
然而，医学专家没有找到生物学解释。
Hypochondriasis: Complaining frequently about physical problems for which doctors are unable to find a cause.
疑病症：经常抱怨医生无法找到原因的身体问题。
An individual with hypochondriasis is known as a hypochondriac.
患有疑病症的个体被称为疑病症患者。
Hypochondriacs become unduly alarmed about any physical or psychological symptoms they detect, no matter how minor the symptom may be, and are convinced that they or others have, or are about to be diagnosed with, a serious illness
疑病症患者对他们发现的任何身体或心理症状过度警觉，无论症状多么轻微，并且确信他们或其他人患有或即将被诊断出患有严重疾病
Psychoanalysts would assert that somatic symptom disorders are merely outward manifestations of unconscious conflicts.
精神分析学家会断言，躯体症状障碍仅仅是无意识冲突的外在表现。
Behaviorists would say that the disorder is reinforced.
行为主义者会说这种疾病得到了加强。
Dissociative disorders involve a disruption in conscious processes.
解离性障碍涉及意识过程的中断。
Dissociative amnesia is when a person cannot recall information or memories and no physiological basis from the disruption in memory can be identified.
解离性健忘症是指一个人无法回忆信息或记忆，并且无法识别记忆中断的生理基础。
Organic amnesia is when amnesia happens naturally; occurs with age.
有机失忆症是自然发生的失忆症；随着年龄的增长而发生。
Dissociative fugue, formerly fugue state is a rare psychiatric disorder characterized by reversible amnesia for personal identity, including the memories, personality, and other identifying characteristics of individuality.
解离性神游，以前的神游状态是一种罕见的精神疾病，其特征是对个人身份的可逆性遗忘，包括记忆、人格和其他个性识别特征。
The state can last days, months or longer.
该状态可以持续数天、数月或更长时间。
Dissociative fugue usually involves unplanned travel or wandering, and is sometimes accompanied by the establishment of a new identity.
分离赋格通常涉及计划外的旅行或流浪，有时还伴随着新身份的建立。
Dissociative identity disorder: previously called multiple personality disorder, is when a person has several personalities rather than one integrated personality.
分离性身份障碍：以前称为多重人格障碍，是指一个人具有多种人格而不是一种综合人格。（@SystemAMWE）
Psychoanalytic theorists believe that dissociative disorders result when an extremely traumatic event has been so thoroughly repressed that a split in consciousness results.
精神分析理论家认为，当极度创伤性事件被如此彻底地压制以致导致意识分裂时，就会产生分离障碍。
However, cases of dissociative disorders are rare outside the United States, and where the number increased dramatically in the last century.
然而，在美国以外，分离性障碍的病例很少见，而且在上个世纪，这一数字急剧增加。
Critics judge it as role-play.
评论家认为这是角色扮演。
Mood or affective disorder is characterized by extreme or inappropriate emotions.
情绪或情感障碍以极端或不恰当的情绪为特征。
Major depressive disorder, also called unipolar depression, is the most common mood disorder.
重度抑郁症，也称为单相抑郁症，是最常见的情绪障碍。
People remain depressed or unhappy, in the absence of a clear reason, for as little as two weeks.
在没有明确原因的情况下，人们会在短短两周内保持沮丧或不快乐。
Major depressive disorder may also result in a loss of appetite, fatigue, changes in sleep patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities and feelings of worthlessness.
重度抑郁症还可能导致食欲不振、疲劳、睡眠模式改变、对通常令人愉快的活动缺乏兴趣和感觉一文不值。
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD): People experience depression during certain times of the year, usually winter, when there is less sunlight.
季节性情感障碍 (SAD)：人们在一年中的某些时候会经历抑郁症，通常是冬天，那时阳光较少。
Psychoanalysts believe depression is the product of anger directed inward, loss during the early psychosexual stages, or an overly punitive (punishing) superego.
精神分析学家认为，抑郁症是内向的愤怒、早期性心理阶段的丧失或过度惩罚（惩罚）的超我的产物。
Aaron Beck, a cognitive theorist, views depression as the result of unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, the world, and their future.
认知理论家 亚伦贝克 认为，抑郁症是人们对自己、世界和未来抱有不合理的消极想法的结果。
认知三合会(Cognitive Triad):
A person's attributional style, also known as their explanatory style, describes how they tend to, often unconsciously, explain various life events to themselves.
一个人的归因风格，也称为他们的解释风格，描述了他们如何倾向于，通常是无意识的，向自己解释各种生活事件。
When someone forms an explanation, it involves three factors.
当有人形成解释时，它涉及三个因素。
Whether they see the cause of the event as internal or external
他们是否将事件的原因视为内部或外部
For example, if someone does well at a new video game some internal explanations may be, "I'm good at games" or, "I'm quick to learn how to play games from this genre."
例如，如果某人在新的视频游戏中表现出色，一些内部解释可能是“我擅长游戏”或“我很快就学会了如何玩这种类型的游戏”。
An external explanation may be, "This game is easy" or, "The person I'm playing against is making a bunch of mistakes."
外部解释可能是，“这个游戏很简单”或“我的对手犯了一堆错误”。
Whether they see the situation as stable or unstable
他们认为情况是稳定还是不稳定
For example, if someone gets stuck in traffic on their way to work a more stable explanation might be, "The traffic in this city has gotten steadily worse. It's going to be like this from now on."
例如，如果有人在上班途中遇到堵车，一个更稳定的解释可能是“这个城市的交通状况越来越差。从现在开始就是这样。”
A more unstable explanation is, "The traffic is bad today, but it could be fine tomorrow. It varies."
一个更不稳定的解释是，“今天的交通很糟糕，但明天可能会好。它会有所不同。”
Whether they see the event as having a more global effect on their lives or if it's specific
他们是否认为该事件对他们的生活具有更全球性的影响，或者它是否具体
For example, if a person makes a new type of error at work, a global explanation would be, "I'm probably going to start making more mistakes on the job in general."
例如，如果一个人在工作中犯了一种新的错误，一个全局的解释是，“我可能会开始在工作中犯更多的错误。”
A specific explanation is, "I have a hard time with this new database software, but that doesn't mean the rest of my work will suffer."
一个具体的解释是，“我很难使用这个新的数据库软件，但这并不意味着我的其余工作会受到影响。”
People who tend to make internal, global, and stable attributions for bad events are more likely to be depressed.
倾向于对不良事件进行内部、全局和稳定归因的人更容易抑郁。
The same people tend to make external, specific, and unstable attributions when good things happen to them.
当好事发生在他们身上时，同样的人往往会做出外部的、具体的和不稳定的归因。
Martin Seligman：习得性无助(Learned Helplessness)
Biological explanations for depression: Low levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, has been linked with major depressive disorder.
抑郁症的生物学解释：低水平的血清素（一种神经递质）与重度抑郁症有关。
Depression is also more likely to occur in families, that is, it has a genetic component.
抑郁症也更有可能发生在家庭中，也就是说，它具有遗传成分。
Bipolar disorder formerly known as manic depression, involves both depressed and manic states.
双相情感障碍以前称为躁狂抑郁症，涉及抑郁和躁狂状态。
A manic state is a feelings of lots of energy, confidence, power, and in some cases, anxiousness and irritable.
躁狂状态是一种充满活力、自信、力量的感觉，在某些情况下，还有焦虑和易怒的感觉。
Mania is then followed by depression. Depression is the opposite of mania.
躁狂症之后是抑郁症。抑郁症与躁狂症相反。
People have reported working and feeling energetic for days, before falling into a depressed state.
人们报告说工作了好几天，感觉精力充沛，然后才陷入抑郁状态。
People in the manic state often engage in risky and poorly thought out behavior: gambling, criminal behavior, irresponsible sexual behavior.
处于躁狂状态的人经常从事冒险和考虑不周的行为：赌博、犯罪行为、不负责任的性行为。
此图片被鉴定为涉
Schizophrenia is distorted thinking, delusions, hallucinations, disorganized language, and unusual motor behavior (movement).
精神分裂症是思维扭曲、妄想、幻觉、语言混乱和不寻常的运动行为（运动）。
Symptoms of Schizophrenia, delusions, are beliefs that have no basis in reality.
精神分裂症的症状，妄想，是在现实中没有根据的信念。
Common types of delusions, delusions of persecution, are the belief that people are out to get you.
常见类型的妄想，迫害妄想，是相信人们是来抓你的。
Delusions of grandeur are the belief that you enjoy greater power and influence than you actually do.
伟大的妄想是相信你享有比实际更大的权力和影响力。
Hallucinations are perceptions in the absence of any sensory stimulation.
幻觉是在没有任何感官刺激的情况下产生的知觉。
Schizophrenics' language use also differs:
精神分裂症患者的语言使用也不同：
Neologisms: Made up words.
新词：虚构的词。
Clang associations: String together nonsense words that rhyme.
Clang 关联：将押韵的无意义单词串在一起。
Flat affect: They may also have no emotional response at all.
平淡的情感：他们也可能根本没有情绪反应。
Catatonia: Remaining motionless in strange positions for hours at a time.
紧张症：一次在奇怪的位置上保持一动不动几个小时。
Waxy flexibility: Schizophrenics allow their body to be moved into any alternative shape and will then hold that new pose.
蜡状的灵活性：精神分裂症允许他们的身体移动到任何其他形状，然后保持新的姿势。
Symptoms of schizophrenia are divided into two types: Positive and negative.
精神分裂症的症状分为阳性和阴性两种。
Positive symptoms refer to excesses in behavior, thought, or mood such as neologisms and hallucinations.
阳性症状是指行为、思想或情绪过度，例如新词和幻觉。
Negative symptoms are flat affect (no emotional response) and catatonia.
阴性症状是平淡的情感（没有情绪反应）和紧张症。
Dopamine hypothesis: High levels of dopamine seem to be associated with schizophrenia.
多巴胺假说：高水平的多巴胺似乎与精神分裂症有关。
Evidence for the dopamine hypothesis comes from the use of antipsychotic drugs that lower dopamine levels, however, if one is given too much of these, it results in muscles tremors and stiffness called tardive dyskinesia.
多巴胺假说的证据来自使用降低多巴胺水平的抗精神病药物，但是，如果服用过多，则会导致肌肉震颤和僵硬，称为迟发性运动障碍。
Schizophrenia patients may exhibit morphological changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles (15% larger).
精神分裂症患者的大脑可能会出现形态学变化，例如充满液体的脑室扩大（大 15%）。
Schizophrenia and the ventricles of the brain:
精神分裂症和脑室：
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates around the brain and spinal cord.
脑脊液 (CSF) 在大脑和脊髓周围循环。
The hollow cavities in the brain filled with CSF are called ventricles.
充满脑脊液的大脑中空腔称为脑室。
The four ventricles in the human brain are depicted here.
此处描绘了人脑中的四个脑室。
Recent studies with CT scans and MRI scans suggest that an association exists between enlarged ventricles in the brain and the occurrence of schizophrenic disturbance.
最近对 CT 扫描和 MRI 扫描的研究表明，大脑中扩大的脑室与精神分裂症的发生之间存在关联。
Some research has suggested that negative symptoms are linked to genetic factors, whereas positive symptoms tend to be related to abnormalities in dopamine levels.
一些研究表明，阴性症状与遗传因素有关，而阳性症状往往与多巴胺水平异常有关。
Double Binds (not related to double blind design in research methods)
双束缚(研究方法与双盲设计无关，英文谐音)
Certain environments may cause or increase the likelihood of developing schizophrenia.
某些环境可能导致或增加患精神分裂症的可能性。
A double bind is when a person is given contradictory messages.
当一个人收到相互矛盾的信息时，就会陷入双重困境。
For example, when growing up, Sally is cautioned by parents against acting promiscuously, but her parents give her provocative outfits as gifts.
例如，Sally在成长过程中被父母告诫不要♯♯，但她的父母却给她挑逗性的服装作为礼物。
Environmental Stressors & Schizophrenia:
环境压力源与精神分裂症:
This model states that environmental stressors can provide the circumstances under which a biological predisposition for illness, like schizophrenia, can express itself.
这个模型表明，环境压力源可以提供一种环境，在这种环境下，一种生物易感性疾病，比如精神分裂症，可以自我表达。
Diathesis-stress model: Identical twins do not always both suffer from schizophrenia, because schizophrenia may result from an environmental factor that is not in the other's environment.
素质-压力模型:同卵双胞胎并不总是同时患有精神分裂症，因为精神分裂症可能是由不属于对方环境的环境因素引起的。
Personality disorders are well-established, maladaptive ways of behaving that negatively affect one's ability to function.
人格障碍是一种根深蒂固的、不适应的行为方式，它会对一个人的功能产生负面影响。
Antisocial personality disorder: People with this disorder have little or no regard for others' feelings.
反社会人格障碍:患有这种障碍的人很少或根本不考虑他人的感受。
They view the world as a hostile place where people need to look out for themselves; criminals have a high incidence of antisocial personality disorder.
他们认为这个世界充满敌意，人们需要照顾自己;罪犯有很高的反社会人格障碍发生率。
Dependent personality disorder: People who rely too much on others.
依赖型人格障碍:过分依赖他人的人。
Paranoid personality disorder: Constantly feel persecuted.
偏执型人格障碍:经常感到受迫害。
Narcissistic personality disorder: Involves seeing oneself as the center of the universe.
自恋型人格障碍:认为自己是宇宙的中心。
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: Persistent unwanted thoughts (obsessions) (e.g., germs) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in an action (e.g., washing hands).
强迫性人格障碍:持续的不想要的想法(强迫)(例如，细菌)导致某人感到需要(强迫)进行某种行动(例如，洗手)。
Post-traumatic stress disorder involves flashbacks or nightmares following a person's involvement in or observation of an extremely troubling event such as war, natural disaster, or traumatic personal event.
创伤后应激障碍是指一个人在经历或观察到诸如战争、自然灾害或个人创伤事件等令人不安的事件后，会出现闪回或做噩梦。
Psychosexual disorders are marked by the sexual attraction to an object, person, or activity not usually seen as sexual.
性心理障碍的特征是对通常不被视为性的物体、人或活动产生性吸引力。
Pedophilia: Attraction to children.
恋童癖:被孩子吸引。
Zoophilia: Attraction to an animal other than a human.
恋兽癖:被动物而不是人所吸引。
Fetishism: Attraction to objects (like shoes).
恋物癖:对物体(如鞋子)的吸引力。
Anorexia is being a significantly lower weight for one's age and size, and an intense fear of food and fat.
厌食症是指一个人的体重与年龄和体型相比明显偏低，对食物和脂肪有强烈的恐惧。
Anorexic's also have a distorted body image.
厌食症患者也有一个扭曲的身体形象。
Bulimia commonly involves binge-purge cycles in which a person eats large amounts of food and then vomits or takes laxatives to rid the food.
暴食症通常包括暴食-排泄循环，即一个人吃了大量食物，然后呕吐或服用泻药来清除食物。
Substance related and addictive disorders is a diagnosis made when the use of such substances or behaviors like gambling or drugs negatively affect one's life.
物质相关和成瘾障碍是指当使用这些物质或赌博或毒品等行为对一个人的生活产生负面影响时做出的诊断。
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) involves developmental problems.
注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)涉及发育问题。
ADHD is more common in boys.
多动症在男孩中更常见。
Children with ADHD may have difficulty paying attention or sitting still.
患有多动症的儿童可能难以集中注意力或坐着不动。
Critics of ADHD suggest that this type of behavior is typical of young boys and is over diagnosed.
ADHD的批评者认为这种类型的行为在小男孩中很典型，并且被过度诊断了。
Alzheimer's disease is a form of dementia.
阿尔茨海默病是痴呆的一种形式。
It is a deterioration of cognitive abilities, often most dramatically in memory.
它是一种认知能力的退化，通常在记忆方面表现最为显著。
It is progressive.
老年痴呆会增强。
It is associated with beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
它与BETA-淀粉样斑块和神经纤维缠结有关。
The Rosenhan Study, the Influence of a Label, is considered an important and influential criticism of psychiatric diagnosis.
罗森汉研究（标签的影响）被认为是精神病学诊断的重要和有影响力的批评。
心理学卷·其之拾叁·心疾之療
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Early treatment (10,000 B.C – 3,000 BC) involved Trepanning: cutting holes in the skull to let out harmful spirits.
早期的治疗（公元前 10,000 - 公元前 3,000 年）包括钻孔：在颅骨上开洞以释放有害的灵魂。（曹操与华佗.txt）
Hippocrates (Greece) and Galen (Rome) suggested that psychological illness resulted from biological factors.
希波克拉底（希腊）和克劳迪亚斯·盖伦（罗马）提出心理疾病是由生物因素引起的。
During Dark Ages, long after these men, Europeans thought evil spirits were the cause of psychological illness.
在黑暗时代，在这些人之后很久，欧洲人认为邪灵是导致心理疾病的原因。
During the 1950s, research and development into antipsychotic drugs led the U.S. to get rid of large mental institutions which housed lots of mentally ill patients.
在 1950 年代，抗精神病药物的研究和开发使美国摆脱了收容大量精神病患者的大型精神病院。
The thinking was that the drugs would help people recover, but most mentally ill patients did not recover and became homeless, delusional, and unable to take care of themselves.
当时的想法是，这些药物可以帮助人们康复，但大多数精神病患者并没有康复，变得无家可归、妄想，无法自理。
Preventative efforts are methods used to prevent or diminish the onset of psychological illness.
预防措施是用于预防或减少心理疾病发作的方法。
Primary prevention efforts attempt to reduce the incidences of problems that can later lead to psychological problems (joblessness, homelessness, etc.).
初级预防工作试图减少后来可能导致心理问题（失业、无家可归等）的问题的发生率。
Secondary preventioninvolves working with people who are at risk for developing psychological problems (identify people who've experienced trauma or exhibit early symptoms).
二级预防涉及与有心理问题风险的人合作（识别经历过创伤或表现出早期症状的人）。
Tertiary prevention efforts aim to keep people's mental health issues from becoming more severe through whatever methods are available (drugs, behavioral therapy, etc.).
三级预防工作旨在通过任何可用的方法（药物、行为疗法等）防止人们的心理健康问题变得更加严重。
Treatment styles discussed: Psychoanalytic, Humanistic, Behavioral, Biomedical, Cognitive.
讨论的治疗方式：精神分析的、人文的、行为的、生物医学的、认知的。
Two broad types of therapy:
两大类疗法：
Psychotherapy, involves talking extensively to a psychologist; all of the above use this except behavioral and biomedical.
心理治疗，包括与心理学家广泛交谈；除行为和生物医学外，以上所有内容都使用此功能。
Somatic treatments, relating to the body, involve treatment with drugs.
躯体治疗，与身体有关的，包括药物治疗。
Psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts refer to people who come for help as patients.
具有生物医学方向的心理学家和精神分析师将寻求帮助的人称为患者。
Humanistic therapies prefer the term clients, believing that this is a more positive term.
人文疗法更喜欢客户一词，认为这是一个更积极的词。
sychoanalytic theorists view the cause of psychological disorders as unconscious conflicts.
精神分析理论家将心理障碍的原因视为无意识的冲突。
Psychoanalysts focus on identifying the underlying cause of the problem.
精神分析师专注于确定问题的根本原因。
Psychoanalysis and humanistic therapy are referred to as insight therapies because they help patients/clients gain an understanding of their problems.
精神分析和人文疗法被称为洞察疗法，因为它们帮助患者/客户了解他们的问题。
Psychoanalytic therapists believe that a person's symptoms are the outward manifestation of deeper problems that can be cured only through analysis.
精神分析治疗师认为，一个人的症状是更深层次问题的外在表现，只有通过分析才能治愈。
涉及的治疗技术Techniques involved
Hypnosis: After being hypnotized by a therapist, patients are less likely to repress thoughts.
催眠：被治疗师催眠后，患者不太可能压抑思想。（正确的直接的中肯的）
Free association: A psychoanalyst asks the patient to speak about whatever comes to mind without censorship, hoping the problem surfaces naturally.
自由联想：精神分析师要求患者在没有审查的情况下谈论任何想到的事情，希望问题自然地浮出水面。
Dream analysis: Asking a patient about their dreams and interpreting them.
梦境分析：向患者询问他们的梦境并对其进行解释。
Psychoanalysts believe that, because the ego’s defenses are relaxed during sleep, unconscious conflicts will more easily reveal themselves during dreams.
精神分析学家认为，由于自我的防御在睡眠中放松，无意识的冲突更容易在梦中显露出来。
Dreams: Manifest content & Latent content
梦想：清单内容和潜在内容
All of the techniques above rely on interpretations of the therapist.
上述所有技术都依赖于治疗师的解释。
The therapist's interpretations can be criticized for being subjective.
治疗师的解释可以被评为“主观”的。
When a patient disagrees with their therapist's interpretations, a psychoanalyst views these objections as resistance.
当患者不同意他们的治疗师的解释时，精神分析师会将这些反对意见视为抵抗。
Since the interpretations can be painful, patients are thought to try to protect themselves by "resisting the interpretation."
由于解释可能很痛苦，患者被认为试图通过“抵制解释”来保护自己。
Transference is when patients begin to have strong feelings toward their therapist.
移情是指患者开始对他们的治疗师产生强烈的感情。（本子剧情かな？）
Patients may think they love their therapist, may view their therapist as a parental figure, or may hate them.
患者可能认为他们爱他们的治疗师，可能将他们的治疗师视为父母形象，或者可能讨厌他们。
Humanistic therapies focus on helping people understand and accept themselves.
人文疗法专注于帮助人们理解和接受自己。
Humanistic therapies strive to help people self-actualize.
人文疗法致力于帮助人们实现自我。
Humanistic therapies come out of Abraham Maslow’s work.
人文疗法来自亚伯拉罕马斯洛的工作。（我超，需求层次理论金字塔！）
Self-actualization means to reach one's highest potential.
自我实现意味着发挥自己的最高潜力。
Carl Rogers created client-centered therapy which provides the client with unintentional positive regard.
卡尔·罗杰斯（Carl Rogers）创造了以客户为中心的疗法，为客户提供了无意的积极关注。
Unconditional Positive Regard is when the therapist accepts and supports a person regardless of what they say.
罗杰认为，这对健康发展至关重要。
Roger believes that this is essential to healthy development.
无条件的积极关注是治疗师接受并支持一个人，不管他们说什么。
Humanistic Therapists claim that people are innately good and have free will (ability to control their own destiny).
人文治疗师声称，人天生善良，有自由意志（控制自己命运的能力）。
Other therapists, such as biomedical, behavioral, and psychoanalysts argue that behavior is determined, and not free.
其他治疗师，如生物医学、行为和精神分析学家认为，行为是决定性的，而不是自由的。
Humanistic approaches and client-centered therapy are non-directive.
人文主义方法和以客户为中心的治疗是非指导性的。
Rogers and others do not tell their clients what to do; they seek to help clients choose a course of action for themselves.
罗杰斯和其他人没有告诉他们的客户该做什么；他们寻求帮助客户为自己选择行动方案。
Therapists encourage the clients to talk a lot about how they feel and the therapist sometimes mirror back those feelings; this is called active listening.
治疗师鼓励来访者谈论他们的感受，治疗师有时会反映这些感受；这称为主动聆听。
Another type of humanistic therapy is Gestalt therapy developed by Fritz Perls.
另一种人文疗法是弗雷德里克·皮尔斯开发的格式塔（完型）疗法。
Gestalt therapists emphasize the importance of the whole rather than just the parts.
格式塔治疗师强调整体而非部分的重要性。
Gestalt therapists encourage their clients to explore feelings of which they may not be aware and emphasize the importance of body position and minute actions.
完型治疗师鼓励他们的客户探索他们可能没有意识到的感受，并强调身体姿势和微小动作的重要性。
Gestalt therapists want their clients to integrate all of their actions, feelings, and thoughts into a harmonious whole.
格式塔治疗师希望他们的客户将他们所有的行为、感受和思想整合成一个和谐的整体。
Gestalt psychologists also emphasize the present.
格式塔心理学家也强调现在。
Existential therapies have a humanistic focus on helping clients achieve a subjectively meaningful perception of their lives.
存在主义疗法的人文主义重点是帮助客户实现对他们生活的主观有意义的感知。
Therapists view their clients' problems as caused by not having a sense of purpose.
治疗师认为他们的客户的问题是由于没有目标感造成的。
Therapists seek to help a client develop their sense of purpose.
治疗师寻求帮助客户发展他们的目标感。
Behavioral therapies are based around using classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling.
行为疗法基于使用经典条件反射、操作条件反射和建模。
Counterconditioning: developed by Mary Cover Jones, is when you repair two stimuli.
对抗条件反射作用：由 Mary Cover Jones 开发，用于修复双刺激。
For example, present candy at the doctor's office, if the child usually cries at the doctors.
例如，如果孩子经常冲着医生哭，就在医生办公室送糖果。
Systematic desensitization, developed by Joseph Wolpe, involves teaching the patient to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation to reduce phobias.
Joseph Wolpe 开发的系统性脱敏法包括教患者用放松来代替焦虑感，以减少恐惧症。
想着一只蜘蛛。（恐惧程度=1）
看着蜘蛛的照片。（恐惧程度=13）
看着盒子里的蜘蛛。（恐惧程度=135）
拿着盒子（恐惧程度=1356）
让蜘蛛在桌子上爬。（恐惧程度=13567）
让蜘蛛在裤子上爬。（恐惧程度=135678）
让蜘蛛在袖子上爬行。（恐惧程度=1356789）
让蜘蛛在胳膊上爬行。（恐惧程度=9876531）
In vivo desensitization: The patient confronts the actual feared objects or situation.
体内脱敏：患者面对实际恐惧的物体或情况。
Covert desensitization: The patient imagines the feared objects or situation.
隐蔽脱敏：患者“想象”恐惧的物体或情况。
Flooding can be in vivo (actual) or covert (imagined).
满灌疗法（直球进入最恐怖、焦虑的情境中）可以在体内（实际）或隐蔽（想象）。
During flooding, the patient faces the most frightening situation first; and if the patient does not back down, they begin to realize their fears are often irrational.
淹水时，病人最先面临最可怕的情况；如果病人不退缩，他们就会开始意识到他们的恐惧往往是不合理的。
Aversive conditioning: Pairing a habit someone wishes to remove, such as nail biting , with an electric shock or with a substance that induces nausea.
厌恶性调节：将某人希望消除的习惯（例如咬指甲）与电击或引起恶心的物质配对。
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) focuses on both how clients think and how they behave.
理性情绪行为疗法 (REBT) 关注来访者的思考方式和行为方式。
One may be embarrassed of public speaking, and the therapist would identify the irrationality of the thoughts of the patient, as well as get the patient to engage in public speaking to demonstrate the irrationality of the thoughts.
一个人可能对公开演讲感到尴尬，治疗师会识别患者思想的不合理性，并让患者参与公开演讲以证明思想的不合理性。
Cognitive Therapies: The therapist challenges the irrational thinking patterns of their clients.
认知疗法：治疗师挑战客户的非理性思维模式。
Aaron Beck, a cognitive theorist, views depression as the result of unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, the world, and their future.
亚伦贝克，一名认知理论家，认为抑郁症是人们对自己、世界和未来抱有不合理的消极想法的结果。
This is called the Cognitive Triad.
这被称为认知三元组。
Albert Ellis and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Albert Ellis 和认知行为疗法
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is an action-oriented form of psychotherapy that assumes that maladaptive thinking patterns cause maladaptive behavior and emotions.
认知行为疗法 (CBT) 是一种以行动为导向的心理治疗形式，它假设不适应的思维模式会导致不适应的行为和情绪。
Modifying dysfunctional thinking and behavior leads to improved symptoms.
改变功能失调的思维和行为可以改善症状。
Thought: What we think affects how we act and feel.
思想：我们的想法会影响我们的行为和感受。
Emotion: What we feel affects how we think and do.
情绪：我们的感受会影响我们的想法和行为。
Behavior: What we do affects how we think and feel.
行为：我们所做的事情会影响我们的思考和感受。
团体治疗(Group Therapies)
Since a patient's problems do not occur in vacuum devoid of other people, many therapists find meeting with the whole family (family therapy) helpful in revealing patterns of dysfunctional behavior between them.
由于病人的问题会发生在没有其他人的真空中，许多治疗师发现与整个家庭会面(家庭治疗)有助于揭示他们之间功能失调的行为模式。
Self-help groups are another form of group therapy: Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Gamblers Anonymous.
自助团体是另一种形式的团体治疗:匿名戒酒会，匿名戒毒会，匿名赌博会。
Somatic therapies (relating to the body)
躯体疗法（与身体有关）
Psychologists with a biomedical, biological, orientation view the cause of disorders as relating to the body and brain.
具有生物医学、生物学方向的心理学家将疾病的原因视为与身体和大脑有关。
Psychologists with this approach view disorders arising from imbalances in neurotransmitters, structural abnormalities in the brain, and genetic predispositions.
采用这种方法的心理学家认为，由神经递质失衡、大脑结构异常和遗传易感性引起的疾病。
Somatic Therapy: Anxiety Disorders
躯体疗法：焦虑症
Drugs: Barbiturates, benzodiazepines.
药物：巴比妥类药物、苯二氮卓类药物。
These drugs are classified as depressants because they depress (slow) the central nervous system down and alleviate anxiety.
这些药物被归类为抑制剂，因为它们可以抑制（减慢）中枢神经系统并减轻焦虑。
常用的苯二氮卓类药物：Ativan、Halcion、Klonopin、Rohypnol、Valium、Xanax。
Somatic Therapy: Schizophrenia
躯体疗法：精神分裂症
Drugs used to treat Schizophrenia:
用于治疗精分的药物：
Treated with antipsychotic drugs like Thorazine and Haldol.
用抗精神病药物治疗，如 Thorazine 和 Haldol。
These drugs block a receptor for the neurotransmitter dopamine.
这些药物阻断神经递质多巴胺的受体。
Somatic Therapy: Mood Disorders
躯体疗法：情绪障碍
Drugs used to treat Mood Disorders: Tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MOIs), and serotonin-reuptake-inhibitor drugs (SSRIs).
用于治疗情绪障碍的药物：三环类抗抑郁药、单胺氧化酶抑制剂 (MOI) 和血清素再摄取抑制剂药物 (SSRI)。
These drugs increase the activity of the serotonin neurotransmitter.
这些药物增加血清素神经递质的活性。
Bipolar disorder is treated with Lithium.
双相情感障碍用锂治疗。
Electroconvulsive Therapy uses electric current, passed through both hemispheres of the brain.
电惊厥疗法使用电流，通过大脑的两个半球。
The electric shock causes patients to experience a brief seizure.
电击会导致患者短暂癫痫发作。
How ECT works is not certain, shock of electricity probably changes blood flow paths in the brain.
ECT 的工作原理尚不确定，电击可能会改变大脑中的血流路径。
It is uncommon, and used mostly in cases of severe depression.
它不常见，主要用于严重抑郁症的情况。
Psychosurgery involves the purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter behavior. This is a last resort!!!
心理外科包括有目的地破坏部分大脑以改变行为。这是最后的手段！！！
Prior to a good understanding, prefrontal lobotomy (removal o the prefrontal lobe) was regularly performed for severe mental illness; it may alleviate some symptoms, but the patient is severely affected in other ways.
在充分了解之前，定期对严重的精神疾病进行前额叶切除术（切除前额叶）；它可能会减轻一些症状，但患者在其他方面受到严重影响。
Eclectic means a broad range of sources or approaches.
折衷主义意味着广泛的来源或方法。
Eclectic therapies take advantage of the different forms of therapies and combine them.
折衷疗法利用不同形式的疗法并将它们结合起来。
Drugs may be used alongside behavioral therapies, and CBT to treat mood disorders, depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders.
药物可与行为疗法和 CBT 一起用于治疗情绪障碍、抑郁症、焦虑症和其他精神障碍。
治疗师的类型(Types of Therapists)
Psychiatrists are medical doctors, and are able to prescribe prescriptions.
精神科医生是医生，可以开处方。
Clinical psychologists earn PhDs, and usually deal with people who are experiencing severe mental disorders.
临床心理学家获得博士学位，通常与患有严重精神障碍的人打交道。
Counseling therapists have either a Masters or PhD and deal with less severe cases of mental disorders – family therapy, school counsellors.
咨询治疗师拥有硕士或博士学位，负责处理不太严重的精神障碍病例——家庭治疗、学校辅导员。
Psychoanalysts are trained in Freudian methods, and may or may not have medical degrees/Masters/PhDs.
精神分析师接受过弗洛伊德方法的培训，可能有也可能没有医学学位/硕士/博士学位。
心理学卷·其之拾肆·社會之念
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社会心理学侧重于态度、归因、我们如何受到影响、我们如何影响以及我们如何互动的发展和表达。
Social Loafing: The tendency for any individual of a group to put in less effort as a result of being in a large group.
社交游荡：群体中的任何个人由于处于一个大群体中而付出较少努力的倾向。
Social cognition discusses attitude formation and attribution theory.
社会认知讨论态度形成和归因理论。
The idea behind social cognition is that people act like scientists; that is, they are constantly gathering data and making predictions about what will happen, and trying to act accordingly.
社会认知背后的理念是人们表现得像科学家。也就是说，他们不断地收集数据并预测会发生什么，并试图采取相应的行动。
Attitude: An attitude is a set of beliefs and feelings.
态度：态度是一组信念和感觉。
Do attitudes always predict behavior?
态度总是能预测行为吗？
Richard LaPiere travelled around the United States in the 1930s with an Asian couple, and found that the Asian couple was treated poorly due to their race only on occassion.
理查德·拉皮尔（Richard LaPiere）在 1930 年代与一对亚洲夫妇周游美国，发现这对亚洲夫妇仅在偶尔的情况下因种族而受到不良待遇。
Later, he contacted the establishments they visited and asked employees/management whether they would serve Asians; the establishments said they would not serve Asians.
后来，他联系了他们参观的机构，询问员工/管理层是否会为亚洲人服务；这些机构说他们不会为亚洲人服务。
Stereotypes: Are attitudes about what members of different groups are like.
刻板印象：是对不同群体成员的态度。
Prejudice is an undeserved, negative, attitude toward a group of people.
偏见是对一群人的一种不应有的、消极的态度。
Discrimination is treating categories of people of race, age, sex, gender, or ability differently.
歧视是以不同的方式对待不同种族、年龄、性别、性别或能力的人。
Ethnocentrism: The belief that one’s culture is superior to others.
民族中心主义：认为自己的文化优于其他文化的信念。
If you change someone’s behavior, can you change their attitude?
如果你改变一个人的行为，你能改变他们的态度吗？
Cognitive Dissonance Theory is based on the idea that people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors.
认知失调理论的基础是人们有动力保持一致的态度和行为。
When someone's behavior does not match their beliefs, they experience mental tension or "dissonance".
当某人的行为与他们的信念不符时，他们会感到精神紧张或“失调”。
Someone who wants to live a long healthy life will experience cognitive dissonance if they are a heavy smoker.
想要健康长寿的人如果是重度吸烟者，就会出现认知失调。
Leon Festinger & James Carlsmith conducted a famous experiment where participants experienced cognitive dissonance.
Participants completed a boring task (twisting, turning some knobs).
Leon Festinger 和 James Carlsmith 进行了一项著名的实验，参与者经历了认知失调。
After finishing, the participants were told that for either $1 or $20, depending on the group they were in, to lie about the boring task being great to the next participant (actually a part of the experiment).
参与者完成了一项无聊的任务（扭转、转动一些旋钮）。完成后，参与者被告知，根据他们所在的小组，以 1 美元或 20 美元的价格谎称这项无聊的任务对下一位参与者来说很棒（实际上是实验的一部分）。
After they were paid to tell the next ‘participant’ that the task was interesting, their attitudes were record on a brief survey.
在他们付钱告诉下一个“参与者”这项任务很有趣之后，他们的态度被记录在一个简短的调查中。
The group paid only $1, having known the task was boring, but having to say it was interesting, experienced dissonance.
该小组只支付了 1 美元，他们知道这项任务很无聊，但不得不说这很有趣，经历了不和谐。
Those who had been paid $20, a high reward, did not experience dissonance, and reported on the survey that the task was boring.
那些获得了 20 美元（高额奖励）的人没有经历过不和谐，并且在调查中报告说这项任务很无聊。
Those who had been paid only one dollar, a small reward, changed their belief about the task and said it was somewhat interesting on the later survey.
那些只得到一美元的小奖励的人改变了他们对这项任务的看法，并表示在后来的调查中这有点有趣。
Attribution Theory tries to explain how people determine the cause of what they observe.
归因理论试图解释人们如何确定他们所观察到的事物的原因。
Attributions are either dispositional (internal, referring to one's personality or set of skills, talent, innate ability, or IQ) or situational (beyond the person's immediate control).
归因可以是性格方面的(内在的，指的是一个人的性格或一系列技能、天赋、天赋或智商)，也可以是情境方面的(人无法直接控制的)。
Say someone cuts you off in traffic. Is it because they are a terrible driver (dispositional) or because their driving to the hospital for an emergency (situational)?
比如说有人在路上抢了你的车。是因为他们是一个糟糕的司机(性格)还是因为他们开车去医院急救(情境)?
Attributions can also be Stable or Unstable
属性也可以是稳定的或不稳定的
Robert is a math whiz and always does well in math. This is a person-stable attribution.
罗伯特是个数学天才，数学成绩总是很好。这是个人稳定归因。
Robert simply studied very hard for this test. This is a person-unstable attribution.
罗伯特只是为了这次考试努力学习。这是个人不稳定归因。
Robert’s teacher, Mr. Smith always gives easy math tests. This is a situation-stable attribution.
罗伯特的老师史密斯先生总是给学生简单的数学测验。这是一种情境稳定归因。
Mr. Smith, Robert’s teacher, gave one easy test. This is a situation-unstable attribution.
罗伯特的老师史密斯先生做了一个简单的测试。这是一种情境不稳定归因。
Harold Kelly explains that the kind of attributions people make are based on three kinds of information: Consistency, Distinctiveness, and Consensus.
哈罗德·凯利解释说，人们作出的归因是基于三种信息:一致性、特殊性、共识。
Consistency refers to how similarly the individual acts over time (does this person always do this?).
一致性指的是个人在一段时间内的行为有多相似(这个人总是这样做吗?)
Distinctiveness refers to how similar some situation is to other situations in which you’ve seen somebody act (did they act like this before?).
独特性指的是某一情境与你所见过某人的其他情境的相似程度(他们之前有过这样的行为吗?)
Consensus refers to taking into consideration how others in the same situation would have acted (would someone else have done this?).
共识指的是考虑其他人在相同情况下会怎么做(其他人会这么做吗?)
Fundamental Attribution Error: When looking at the behavior of others, people tend to overestimate the importance of dispositional (personality) factors and underestimate situational factors.
基本归因错误:在看待他人行为时，人们往往高估性格因素的重要性，而低估情境因素。
In addition, people are more likely to view others behavior as dispositional, but in judging their own behavior, they are more likely to say that their behavior depends on the situation.
此外，人们更可能将他人的行为视为性格，但在判断自己的行为时，他们更可能说自己的行为取决于情境。
Different cultures may commit the fundamental attribution error less often.
不同的文化可能很少犯基本归因错误。
Individualist cultures emphasize the importance and uniqueness of the individual (error occurs in these cultures more often).
个人主义文化强调个人的重要性和独特性(错误在这些文化中发生得更多)。
Collectivist cultures emphasize a person's link to various groups like family or a company (error does not occur as often in these kinds of cultures).
集体主义文化强调一个人与家庭或公司等不同群体的联系(错误在这些文化中不经常发生)。
Additional terms regarding social cognition and attribution theory.
关于社会认知和归因理论的附加术语。
False-consensus effect: The tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them.
错误共识效应:人们倾向于高估与自己意见一致的人数。
Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute our success to personal/internal factors, but attribute our failures to situational/external factors.
自我服务偏见:倾向于将我们的成功归因于个人/内部因素，而将我们的失败归因于情境/外部因素。
Just-world Bias: The belief that good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people.
公正世界偏见:相信好事发生在好人身上，坏事发生在坏人身上。
How can you make an argument more persuasive?
怎样才能使论点更有说服力?
When presenting are argument, is it better to present the facts in a straightforward manner or dress up the message with nice sounds and images?
在陈述论点时，是直接陈述事实更好，还是用漂亮的声音和图像来修饰信息更好?
Central Route of Persuasion focuses on details, statistics, and facts about the object or service to persuade an audience.
说服的中心路线集中在细节、统计和关于对象或服务的事实，以说服观众。
Peripheral Route of Persuasion is using tactics other than the facts or logical arguments to persuade an audience.
外围说服路线是使用非事实或逻辑论证的策略来说服听众。
These could be using an attractive person, flashing lights, pleasant sounds, an authoritative figure, or something else.
这些可以是一个有吸引力的人，闪烁的灯光，悦耳的声音，权威的人物，或其他东西。
Some research suggests that people who have attained a higher education are less likely to be swayed by the peripheral route.
一些研究表明，接受过高等教育的人不太可能被外围路线所左右。
Research also suggests that when presenting to a uniform audience, a one-sided message is better.
研究还表明，当面向统一的听众时，片面的信息更好。
When presenting to a broader audience, it is better to show both the pros and cons of the object or service.
当向更广泛的观众展示时，最好同时展示对象或服务的优点和缺点。
Another possible way to make a message more persuasive is to repeatedly show it.
另一种使信息更具说服力的方法是反复展示它。
Mere Exposure Effect: Even if you've only seen something once, you're more likely to have a positive attitude towards it over something that you've never encountered before.
仅仅接触效应:即使你只见过一次，你也更有可能对它有积极的态度，而不是你以前从未见过的东西。
Is there anyway to increase the likelihood that you'll do what I ask?
有什么方法能增加你按我说的做的可能性吗?
合规策略(Compliance Strategies):
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: If you get people to agree to a small request (do you have the time?), they will be more likely to agree to a larger follow-up request (can you spare a dollar?).
脚踏实地的现象:如果你让人们同意一个小要求(你有时间吗?)，他们更有可能同意一个更大的后续要求(你能给我一美元吗?)
Door-in-the-face: If you want something, ask for something really big before asking for what you really want (can I have $5? “No” Can I have $1?).
Door-in-the-face:如果你想要某样东西，在提出你真正想要的东西之前先提出一个非常大的要求
(我能要5美元吗?“不行”我能要1美元吗?)
Norms of Reciprocity: The idea that if you do something nice for someone else, they’ll do something nice in return.
互惠原则:如果你对别人做了好事，他们也会对你做了好事作为回报。
Do others' expectations affect our behavior and performance?
别人的期望会影响我们的行为和表现吗?
In the 1960s, Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson hypothesized that a teacher's expectation could influence a child's performance.
在20世纪60年代，Robert Rosenthal和Lenore Jacobson假设老师的期望会影响孩子的表现。
Study: They randomly assigned five children to the "spurter/bloomer" group, but told teachers these students were selected based on test performance that indicated future success.
研究:他们随机将5名学生分到“有进取心/有进取心”组，但他们告诉老师，这些学生是根据预示未来成功的测试表现挑选出来的。
Findings: The children who were expected to "spurt" made larger improvements than the others.
发现:那些被预期会“突飞猛进”的孩子比其他孩子取得了更大的进步。
Self-fulfilling Prophecy/Pygmalion effect/Rosenthal effect is the phenomenon whereby others' expectations of a person affect that person's performance.
自我实现预言（皮格马利翁效应/罗森塔尔效应）是指他人对一个人的期望影响这个人的表现的现象。
Opposite of this effect is called the Golem effect.
与此效应相反的是
Does performing in front of a crowd help or hinder us?
在一群人面前表演对我们有帮助还是有阻碍?
Social Facilitation: If it is an easy task, a person will perform better in front of an audience.
社会促进:如果这是一个简单的任务，一个人会在观众面前表现得更好。
Social Impairment: When the task being observed is a difficult task, being watched by many people, performance decreases.
社交障碍:当被观察的任务是一项困难的任务，并且有很多人在观看时，表现就会下降。
Psychology of Aggression & Prosocial Behavior
攻击心理学与亲社会行为
Instrumental aggression is when the aggressive act is intended to secure a particular end.
工具性侵略是指侵略行为旨在达到某一特定目的。
Hostile aggression Has no clear purpose, like some acts of vandalism.
没有明确的目的，就像一些破坏公物的行为。
Frustration-aggression hypothesis holds that the feeling of frustration makes aggression more likely.
挫折-攻击假说认为挫败感使攻击更有可能发生。
'Is there any way we can make hostile groups get along?
“有什么办法能让敌对团体和睦相处吗?”
The Robbers Cave study‘’‘’ focused on intergroup behavior, observing 22 eleven- and twelve-year-old boys.
“Robbers Cave研究” 主要关注群体间行为，观察22个11到12岁的男孩。
The children were split into two teams and forced to compete for rewards.
孩子们被分成两组，并被迫为奖励而竞争。
Eventually things became so hostile between the two groups that researchers intervened.
最终，两组人之间的关系变得如此敌对，以至于研究人员进行了干预。
Contact Theory if hostile groups are made to work toward a superordinate goal that benefits all and necessitates participation from all, then animosity will be reduced between the two groups.
接触理论:如果敌对群体朝着一个更高的目标努力，使所有人都受益，并要求所有人都必须参与，那么两个群体之间的敌意就会减少。
Prosocial behavior: Acts which help other people.
亲社会行为:帮助他人的行为。
Bystander effect: The larger the number of people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely any one is to intervene.
旁观者效应:目睹紧急情况的人越多，干预的可能性就越小。
One explanation for the bystander effect is the diffusion of responsibility.
旁观者效应的一种解释是责任扩散。
Diffusion of Responsibility: The larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels that they are for helping.
责任分散:看到问题的人越多，任何一个人就越觉得自己不应该提供帮助。
Pluralistic ignorance: People tend to assume that someone else will take action so they need not do it themselves.
多元无知:人们倾向于认为别人会采取行动，所以他们不必自己去做。
What makes us like or dislike other people?
是什么让我们喜欢或不喜欢别人?
Research indicates that we like people who are similar to us, with whom we come in frequent contact, and who return our positive feelings.
研究表明，我们喜欢与自己相似的人，与我们经常接触的人，以及能回应我们积极感受的人。
Factors that influence liking are similarity, proximity, and reciprocal liking.
影响喜好的因素有相似度、接近度和相互喜好。
'心理学的吸引力(Psychology of Attraction')
Research has demonstrated that attractive people are perceived as having all sorts of characteristics and attributes that you could not infer from just looks.
研究表明，有魅力的人被认为拥有所有你不能从外表推断出来的特征和属性。
People may perceive this man as more honest, hard-working, ambitious, etc.
人们可能会认为这个人更诚实、勤奋、有抱负等等。
What makes someone physically attractive?
是什么让一个人外表有吸引力?
Research findings show that people who have very symmetrical features are judged as more attractive.
研究结果表明，拥有非常对称特征的人被认为更有吸引力。
爱情心理学(Psychology of Love)
Love is hard to define.
爱是很难定义的。
Self-disclosure is when one shares a piece of personal information with another.
自我表露是指一个人与另一个人分享个人信息。
Close relationships with friends and intimate others are often built through a process of self-disclosure.
与朋友和亲密的人的亲密关系通常是通过自我表露的过程建立起来的。
To what extent do social forces alter people's opinions and actions?
社会力量在多大程度上改变了人们的观点和行为?
Soloman Asch的从众心理研究(Conformity studies):
Groups of students participated in a simple "perceptual" task.
一组一组的学生参与了一个简单的“感知”任务。
All but one of the participants were actors, and the true focus of the study was about how the remaining participant would react to the actors' behavior.
除了一个参与者外，其他参与者都是参与者，而研究的真正重点是，剩下的参与者将如何对参与者的行为作出反应。
Stanley Milgram: Can you make someone more obedient?
Stanley Milgram：你能让一个人更听话吗?
Milgram measured the willingness of participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience.
米尔格拉姆(Milgram)测量了参与者的意愿，这些参与者来自不同的职业、不同的教育水平，他们服从权威人士的指示，做出与自己的个人良心相冲突的行为。
65 percent (26 of 40) of experiment participants administered the experiment's final massive 450-volt shock.
65%的实验参与者(40人中的26人)进行了最后一次450伏的电击。
Psychology of Groups: How do people act in groups?
群体心理学:人们在群体中如何行动?
Norms are rules about how group members should act.
规范是关于群体成员应该如何行动的规则。
Being a lawyer at an established law firm means going into work well-dressed, prepared, etc.
作为一名在知名律师事务所工作的律师意味着要穿着得体、准备充分等等。
Roles are the actions we carry out in a group.
角色是我们在群体中执行的行动。
The corporate lawyer takes on legal cases dealing with business arrangements/disagreements.
公司律师处理处理商业安排/分歧的法律案件。
In-group: Who you perceive as within your own circle. People view the members of their own group as more diverse than people of the out-group. There is also a preference for member’s of your in-group. This is called in-group bias.
内群体:你认为在你自己的圈子里的人。人们认为自己群体的成员比外群体的成员更多样化。你也会偏爱你的内部团体成员。这被称为群体内偏见。
Out-group: Everyone outside your group.
群体外的人:群体外的人。（还真是）
Out-group Homogeneity: Viewing the out-group as all the same.
外群体同质性:认为外群体都是一样的。
Group Polarization is the tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions that individual group members would not make on their own.
群体极化指的是一个群体倾向于做出更极端的决定，而这些决定是个体成员自己不会做出的。
Explanations for group polarization include that in a group, individuals may be exposed to new arguments they had no previous exposure to and that the responsibility of the success or failure of some plan is diffused among the group – deindividuation.
对于群体极化的解释包括:在一个群体中，个体可能会接触到他们以前没有接触过的新论点，以及某些计划的成功或失败的责任在群体中扩散——去个性化。
Groupthink, describes the tendency for some groups to make bad decisions, occurs when group members suppress their reservations about the ideas supported by the group, and, as a result, a false sense of unanimity is encouraged.
群体思维(Groupthink)描述了一些群体做出错误决策的倾向，当群体成员压制自己对群体支持的观点的保留意见时，就会出现这种倾向，结果就是鼓励了一种一致的错误感觉。
Deindividuation: People may get swept up by a group and do things they would never have done if on their own such as rioting or looting.
去个性化(Deindividuation):人们可能会被一群人包围，做一些如果自己一个人不会做的事情，比如暴动或抢劫。
Philp Zimbardo & The Stanford Prison "Experiment"
菲利普·津巴多和斯坦福监狱的“实验”
The Stanford Prison Experiment was a social psychology experiment that attempted to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers.
斯坦福监狱实验是一个社会心理学实验，试图调查感知权力的心理影响，重点关注囚犯和狱警之间的斗争。
Is the person inherently bad or does the situation/role/institution make him bad?
这个人是天生坏，还是环境/角色/制度让他坏?